Тема 1

 Theme: The verb to  be, to  have  got

Positive: subject + am / is / are

Negative: subject + am / is / are not

Questions: am / is / are + subject

We often use the contracted forms (I’m, he’s, she’s, it’s, we’re, you’re, they’re).

We use be:

• with adjectives.

She is French. He’s ambitious. We’re very sorry.

We can use this / that I these / those instead of a personal pronoun.

This is our office. These are our premises.

• with articles to talk about professions.

He is a businessman.

•        with prepositions.

He’s from Rome.

REMEMBER:

We use be, not have to talk about age, hunger, and thirst.

He’s thirty (years old). NOT Helms thirty three years old.

I’m hungry and thirsty, NOT I have hunger and thirst.

•        with the present participle of a verb to form the present continuous.

What are you doing?

Questions and negatives

We form a question by inverting the verb and the subject.

Is she in charge of the project?

How are you today?

We form the negative by putting not after the verb. We often use the contracted forms

(I’m not, he / she / it isn’t, we/you / they aren’t)

She isn’t here today.

Why aren’t they here today

 REMEMBER:

We do not use the auxiliary do.

Not : They don’t be here today.

In question tags, we use the contracted form when the question tag is negative.

You’re new here, aren’t you

When the question tag is positive, however, you must use the full form.

He isn’t here, is he? NOT:  He isn’t here,  is he?

Short answers

When you reply to questions with a short answer, you must use the full forms when the answer is positive.

Is he here today?

Answer: Yes, he is. or No, he isn’t, NOT Yes, he’s.

REMEMBER:

the contracted form of I am not is I’m not, not I amn’t.

Have and have got

Have got is mostly used in spoken English and is less formal than have.

We use have and have got to talk about possession:

We have / we’ve got four important customers.

We use have, but not have got for ‘action verbs’:

She has a shower every morning.

NOT: She has got a shower.

Have

Positive: subject + have /has

Negative: subject + do /does not + base form of the verb

Questions: do/does + subject + base form of the verb

For have as a full verb, we use the auxiliary verb do in questions and negatives.

Do you have a mobile phone? not Do you have got a mobile phone?

No, I don’t have one.

In short answers, we do not use have.

Do you have a new slogan? Yes, we do. /No, we don’t. NOT No, we don’t have.

In question tags, we use the contracted form of do not when the question tag is negative.

You have a large client base, don’t you?

Have got

Positive: subject + have /has got

Negative: subject + have/has not got

Questions: have /has + subject + got

For have got, we do not use the auxiliary verb do in questions and negatives.

Have you got a car? No, I haven’t (got one).

In short answers, we use only have / haven’t, without got.

Have they got a new car? No, they haven’t. NOT No, they haven’t got.

You must use the full forms of have when the answer is positive.

Have you got a new job? Yes, I have. NOT Yes, I've.

In question tags, we use the contracted form of have not when the question tag is negative.

You’ve got a new car, haven’t you?

When the question tag is positive, however, you must use the full form.

You haven’t got those figures, have you? NOT You haven’t got those figures, ’-ve you?

The past of both have and have got is had. This form does not change

 (I / he/she/it/we/you/they had).

I    had a problem, NOT I had got a problem.

We use the auxiliary verb did in questions and negatives.

Did you have a problem?

NOT Had you/had you get a problem?

No, I didn’t have a problem.

In short answers, we use did (not), not had (not).

Did you have a good time? Yes, I did. NOT Yes, I had.

When the answer is negative, we normally use the contracted form of did not.

No, I didn’t.

In question tags, you must use the contracted form of did not when the question tag is negative.

You had several options, didn’t you? NOT You had several options, did not you

Text: Starting a new job

The first week of any job is to settle in and to get on with your boss and colleagues. Arrive on time, especially on your first day, and don't leave early. Be visible but don't try too hard to make a good impression. Watch  how others behave, and listen more than you speak. Your boss will judge you by the company you keep so avoid staff who complain or gossip. Make friends with colleagues who are dynamic and enthusiastic. Never try to make yourself popular through silly jokes or bad behavior - people have long memories.

Don't make comparisons with other companies - especially your old one. Keep a positive attitude. Don't criticize your colleagues or get involved in their arguments. If you're sharing an office, respect your colleagues' working space. Don't move the furniture or be untidy in the office.

Finally, new recruits sometimes expect to have important tasks straightaway. The reality is different: whatever your experience and qualifications, expect to begin with -basic jobs like photocopying or making the coffee. Stay busy, do every job well and keep smiling.

Glossary

Контрольные вопросы:

1. По каким правилам спрягается (т.е. изменяется по лицам и числам) глагол“to be”.
2. Особенности перевода предложений с  глаголом “to be”.
3. Образования отрицательной и вопросительной формы глагола “to be” .

Тема 2

Theme: Present simple: describing routines

In the present simple, verbs in the third person singular (he /she/it) have an -sending.

work / he works, pay / he pays

Some verbs follow a different rule, according to the ending of the verb.

Add – es  to verbs ending in –sh , -ch, -ss or -o.

go / he goes wash / he washes With verbs ending in consonant + -y,

change the -y to -/' and add -es.

fly / he flies try / he tries

We use the present simple:

to express facts or talk about things which have been true for a long time.

Manuela comes from Argentina.

China produces most of the toys in our shop.

Britain  doesn’t  export  bananas.

with an adverb of frequency to say how often something happens. Notice that the most usual place for the adverb is between the subject and the verb.

We sometimes have problems with the photocopier.

The firm never uses sub-contractors.

We don’t usually give refunds on goods from our sale.

We can also use expressions such as once a week, or every day. These go at the end of the clause.

go away on business about twice a month.

to ask about frequency.

How often does she do the accounts?

Does he usually arrive on time?

Which adverb we choose, depends on how we view the event. Here are some of the most frequent.

We make questions:

•        by using the auxiliary do / does and the base form of the verb.

Does Cindy drive to work?

•        by using wh- question words.

Where does Karl work?

•        by using expressions such as How often?

How often do you visit Italy?

In question tags, we use the contracted form of do / does when the question tag is negative.

She goes by train, doesn’t she?

 NOT She goes by train, does not she?

In short answers, we usually use the contracted form in the negative.

Do you travel abroad very often? No, I don’t. / Yes, I do.

remember: If the subject of a question is who, what or which then we do not use the auxiliary verb do.

Who lives in that big house? not Who does live ... ?

What happens when you get an order? not What does happen ... ?

1. Complete these forms of the present simple:

positives

I / you / we / they work.

He / she / it_________________        

negatives

 I / you / we / they don’t work.

He / she / it___________ work.

questions

 (Where) _______________you work ?

(Where) _________________he / she / it work ?

2.  Correct the sentences as in the example.

Pilar lives in Madrid.

She doesn’t live in Madrid; she lives in Barcelona.

1        Morten’s a computer programmer.

2        Fanes is a large multinational.

3        Pilar reports to her brother.

4        Morten goes home for lunch every day.

5        Morten starts work before 8 o’clock.

6        After lunch, Pilar goes home.

3.       Arrange the words in the correct order.

1        people - I - three - work - with - other - usually

2        I - ever - Jane - at - hardly - call - her - office

3        late - work - I’m - for - never

4        finish - you - do - 7 o’clock? - always - before - work

5        often - July - business - away - on - is - in - he

6        a - week - customers - Tracy - visits - twice

7        often - travel - France - you - do - how - to

Text: Michael Dell’s Working Day

For one of America's richest men, the Deli Chairman lives a remarkably unglamorous life. Michael Dell spends about 30% of his time travelling to the company's operations overseas and meeting international customers. In a typical year, he makes two or three trips to Europe and another two to Asia.

When he is at his home in Austin, Texas, he gets up at 5.30 am each day. His house is known locally as the castle', because of its high walls and security guards.

Deli lives here with his wife Susan and their four children, in the mornings, he exercises at home for an hour from 6 a.m. and then drives to his office on the Dell

campus, north of Austin arriving at 8 a.m. At work, he discusses and makes decisions

about customers, company strategy and operations, and planning for the organization. 'I leave the office at about 615 p.m., have dinner with the family, do story time with the kids and get them to bed' Dell often spends a couple of hours doing email in the evenings. Then I go to sleep, get up and do it all again,' he says.

4. Match the company departments (1-6) with the words (a-f) below.

1        Human Resources                                  a          accounting reports

2        Production                                              b          future products

3        Marketing                                               с          hiring staff

4        Information Technology                        d          sales

5        Finance                                                   e          factory, workshop

6        Research and Development                   f          computers

Glossary

Letter head -          n шапка на фирменном бланке

inside name and address название и имя фирмы, которой адресовано письмо

message (= body of the letter)       n зд. собственно письмо

cotnplimenlary closure   -     заключительная фраза письма

signature -    n подпись

limited liability -  ограниченная ответственность

in full полностью

(im)polite - а (не)Вежливый

Courtesy title -титул

Colonel - полковник

formal opening  - официальное начало (письма)

waste-     v тратить (впустую)

to keep short зд.- писать короткими фразами

reflect- v отражать

Matching зд.- соответствующие

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Какое действие выражает настоящее неопределенное время?
2. Объясните схему образования специальных вопросов в Present  Simple.
3. Перечислите наречия неопределенного времени.

Тема 3

Theme: Degrees of comparison

Степени сравнения прилагательных.

Существуют три степени сравнения прилагательных: положительная, сравнительная и превосходная.

Положительная степень.Базовая форма, которая просто сообщает о качестве или количестве. Пример: a nice day – прекрасный день.

Сравнительная степень.

Используется при сравнении качеств. Сравнительная степень прилагательных в английском языке может образовываться путём прибавления суффикса -er или с помощью конструкции со словом more (более). С помощью –er  образуют сравнительную степень односложные прилагательные (кроме right и wrong), а также часть двусложных прилагательных: все оканчивающиеся на -y, а также прилагательные clever, narrow, quiet, simple, fat  — fatter (жирнее) easy (легкий) — easier (легче). Только c помощью more  сравнительную степень образуют некоторые двусложные прилагательные (в частности, все оканчивающиеся на -ing, -ed, -ful и -less), а также прилагательные, состоящие из трех или более слогов. В случае сомнений способ образования сравнительной степени двусложных прилагательных следует устанавливать по словарю. Примеры:

This boy is stronger than his friend. – Мальчик сильнее, чем его друг.

This book is more interesting than his. – Эта книга интереснее, чем его (книга).

Эти примеры демонстрируют порядок слов в предложениях, содержащих конструкцию со сравнительной степенью прилагательных. Изобразим эту структуру следующим образом: объект + (is) глагол-связка + прилагательное в сравнительной степени + than (чем) + объект.

Превосходная степень

Превосходная степень прилагательных в английском языке может образовываться с помощью  суффикса –est, или с помощью конструкции со словом most. С помощью – est образуют превосходную степень односложные прилагательные (кроме right и wrong), а также часть двусложных прилагательных: все оканчивающиеся на -y, а также прилагательные clever, narrow, quiet, simple, thin  — the thinnest

(тончайший) lovely (прелестный) — the loveliest (самый прелестный). С помощью most образуют превосходную степень некоторые двусложные прилагательные (в частности, все оканчивающиеся на -ing, -ed, -ful и -less), а также прилагательные, состоящие из трех или более слогов. В случае сомнений способ образования превосходной степени двусложных прилагательных следует устанавливать по словарю. Примеры:

The boy is the strongest in his class. – Этот мальчик самый сильный в своём классе.

This book is the most interesting. – Это самая интересная книга.

Структура: объект + (is) глагол связка + (the) артикль + прилагательное в превосходной степени. Обратите внимание, что прилагательные в превосходной степени, как правило, употребляются с определенным артиклем the ( или притяжательным местоимением).

Несколько прилагательных образуют сравнительную и превосходную степени не по общим правилам или имеют несколько сравнительных форм:

cheap -> cheaper, fast-> faster, large -> larger, thin -> thinner

We also use ~er for two-syllable words that end in -y (-y -> -ier):

lucky -> luckier, early -> earlier, easy -> easier, pretty -> prettier

Compare these examples:

* You're older than me.

* The exam was quite easy - easier than we expected.

* Can you walk a bit faster?

* I'd like to have a bigger car.

* Last night I went to bed earlier than usual.

  1. Complete the sentences using a comparative form (older/more important etc.).

  1. It's too noisy here. Can we go somewhere _quieter?_

  2. This coffee is very weak. I like it a bit ---.

  3. The hotel was surprisingly big. I expected it to be ---.

  4. The hotel was surprisingly cheap. I expected it to be ---.

  5. The weather is too cold in this country. I'd like to live somewhere ---.

  6. My job is a bit boring sometimes. I'd like to do something ---.

  7. 1 was surprised how easy it was to use the computer. I thought it would be ---.

  8. Your work isn't very good. I'm sure you can do ---.

  9. Don't worry. The situation isn't so bad. It could be ---.

  10. 1 was surprised we got here so quickly. I expected the journey to take ---.

  11. You're talking very loudly. Can you speak a bit ---.

  12. You hardly ever phone me. Why don't you phone me ---.

  13. You're standing too near the camera. Can you move a bit --- away?

  14. You were a bit depressed yesterday but you look --- today.

  2. Complete the sentences. Each time use the comparative form of one of the words in the list. Use than where necessary.

big  crowded  early  easily  high  important  interested  peaceful  reliable  serious  simple  thin

 1. I was feeling tired last night, so I went to bed _earlier than_ usual.

  2. I'd like to have a _more reliable_ car. The one I've got keeps breaking down.

  3. Unfortunately her illness was --- we thought at first.

  4. You look --- Have you lost weight?

  5. I want a --- flat. We don't have enough space here.

  6. He doesn't study very hard. He's --- in having a good time.

  7. Health and happiness are --- money.

  8. The instructions were very complicated. They could have been ---.

  9. There were a lot of people on the bus. It was --- usual.

  10. I like living in the countryside. It's --- living in a town.

  11. You'll find your way around the town --- if you have a good map.

  12. In some parts of the country, prices are --- in others.

  3. Read the situations and complete the sentences. Use a comparative form (~er or more ...).

  1. Yesterday the temperature was nine degrees. Today it's only six degrees.

  _It's colder today than it was yesterday._

  2. The journey takes four hours by car and five hours by train.

It takes ---.

  3. Dave and I went for a run. I ran ten kilometres. Dave stopped after eight kilometres.

  I ran ---.

  4. Chris and Joe both did badly in the exam. Chris got 20 % but Joe only got 15 %.

  Joe did ---.

  5. I expected my friends to arrive at about 4 o'clock. In fact they arrived at 2.30.

  My friends ---.

  6. You can go by bus or by train. The buses run every 30 minutes. The trains run every hour.

  The buses --

  7. We were very busy at work today. We're not usually as busy as that.

  We ---.

Application form.

When a person is eager to get a job he is often to fill in a resume (USA) or curriculum vitae (UK) or a standard printed application form. The forms can be laid out in different ways but the information required will, in most cases, be the same.

The information given by the candidate in these papers will be helpful in assessing the candidate’s suitability for the post.

From the candidate’s point of view, this paper is the impression the firm will obtain of him or her and therefore it is important that the candidate completes the paper clearly and carefully.

A curriculum vitae should usually contain the following information:

• name
• address
• telephone
• fax
• e-mail
• date of birth
• place of birth
• nationality
• marital status
• objective
• work experience
• education
• languages
• hobbies and interests
• references (UK) or testimonials (US)

Glossary

CV= Curriculum vitae           резюме

to look for smth          искать что-либо

to be eager to smth     сильно желать сделать что-либо

to fill in           заполнять

to lay (laid, laid)         положить, класть, возлагать

to lay-out        расположить

lay-out расположение, размещение

to assess          оценивать

assessment      оценка

to suit  подходить, расстраивать

suitable           подходящий, удобный

to obtain         получать

therefore         поэтому

to complete     заполнять

e-mail  электронная почта

marital status  семенное положение

reference         рекомендация

qualifications  оценки

qualification    подготовленность, звание

objective         Цель

to train            обучать

trainee обучающийся

traineeship      обучение

horse riding     верховая езда

referee лицо, дающее рекомендацию

to apply           обращаться, относится

applicant         претендент, кандидат

application form         анкета претендента

vicar    приходский священник

former бывший

to supervise     руководить

supervisor       руководитель

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Как образуется  степени  сравнения английского языка.

2.Объясните  по каким правилам образуется превосходная  степен прилагательных.

3.Объясните порядок следования сравнительной степени прилагательных  в английском предложении.

Тема 4

Theme: Present perfect

Positive: Subject + have / has + past participle

Negative: Subject + have / has not + past participle

Questions: Have / has + subject + past participle

The past participle of regular verbs ends in -ed. Turn for a list of irregular verbs.

In general, we use the present perfect to talk about how past actions relate to the present.

We use the present perfect simple:

-to refer to something which started in the past and which continues into the present

She has lived in Paris all her life.

-to talk about how long something has continued for over a period of time up

to the present (with for and since).

She took over the business when her father retired seven years ago. (She is still in charge of the business now).

She has been in charge of the business for seven years.

(for +period)

She has been in charge of the business since her father retired. (since + specific time or event)

-to talk about past events when there is no specific time given or implied.

Karin has travelled a lot for the company. She has been to South America and has sold our goods in Asia.

-with ever and never to talk about past experiences where no date is given.

Have you ever spoken to Hiroshi from the Tokyo office?

No, I haven’t.

She has never taken a day off work.

remember: If we give a definite date or more specific information, we have to use the past simple.In 1997, she was salesperson of the year.

-to talk about events which happened in the past, but which have a result now.

Who has taken the report that was on my desk?

Question tags and short answers are formed in the same way as for the present simple of have got. You’ve met the new chairman, haven’t you? Yes, I have. /No, I haven’t.

Ex 1. These time expressions usually go with either the present simple or the present perfect. Put the expressions in the most appropriate column below.

ever/      from 2001 to 2002/     since 1990/      this week/

last month/        this year/         on my first trip/           in yesterday’s meeting/

Ex 2. Complete sentences 1-7 below with the correct form of the present perfect or past simple.

1        (I / watch)  an interesting program  last night.

2        (you / ever / visit) Thailand?

3        (I / never / eat) a meal as bad as this!

4        (you / discuss) the trade fair in yesterday’s meeting?

5        (we / not / see) each other since the conference last November.

6        (I / work) for the same boss since 1995.

7        (I / work) for Evertalk  Consulting from 1996 to 2002.

Ex 3.Make questions by choosing a beginning from A and a suitable ending from В below. If possible, ask and answer further questions, giving details, as in the example.

O: Have you ever lost your luggage?

A: Yes, I have.

0: Where did you lose it?

A: I lost it when I flew to Seattle last year.

0: Did you get it back?

A: I got it back in the end, but I had to wear the same clothes for a couple of days.

Text:  Business Travel

Business travel continues to grow by around half a million people a year, despite alternatives such as fax, email, and tele-conferencing. Last year 14.8 million business passengers flew in and out of the UK. So how does-all that travel affect business people?

'I have visited Amsterdam more than 50 times in two years and have only seen the airport, the office, and the hotel/ says Duncan Blaine, a 35-year-old telecommunications executive. 'Getting up at 5.30 a.m. is very stressful. I always worry whether the car will turn up, and if there are any delays on the road or at the airport which could mess up my schedule. At first I couldn't sleep the night before! All the travel sounded exciting in the beginning, but the reality is very different

Antonia Shakespeare has been a frequent traveller during her 22-year career in the fashion industry. She believes business travel has become more stressful as it has become more common. 'As your life gets fuller, with children and so on, it becomes more difficult,' she says. 'But it's not just to do with age. Modern communications mean that you have to stay in touch with the office all the time - except when you are actually

on the plane! When you get to the hotel you have to check your emails. In the past when you were away, no one expected to be in constant contact with you. These days you have to take the in-tray with you, and managing your work from afar can be very difficult, especially if you're in a different time zone.’

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  Present Perfect  Tense?
2. Объясните способы образования Present Perfect  Tense.
3. Перечислите правила отличающие разницу действия Past  Simple  and

Present Perfect.

Тема 5

 Theme: The Continuous Form

The Continuous form denotes an action in progress at the present moment or at a given moment in the past or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required tense and Participle I of the notional verb. The formation of the Present Continuous.

1. The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present In­definite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb
2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'm reading

She's reading

We're reading

The contracted negative forms are:

She isn't reading

We aren't reading

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Am I not reading?

Is she not reading?

 Isn't she reading?

Are you not reading?

Aren't you reading?

 The use of the Present Continuous.

The Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment. It should be borne in mind that the term 'present moment' is not limited to the actual moment of speaking. The Present Continuous is used when in Russian we can say сейчас (теперь), which refers not only to the moment of speaking, but has a wider meaning.

"My dear," said Jolyon with gentle exasperation, "you are talking nonsense."

Robert is just now speaking to my uncle and they are shaking hands.

How is Dartie behaving now? — Как Дарти ведет себя сейчас?

Katya is in Britain for three months. She is learning English.

Note. The Present Indefinite, not the Present Continuous, is used to denote actions going on at the present moment when the fact is important and not the process.

He did such a mean thing and you defend him.

Why don't you read your examples?

Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me?

Why don't you answer? Good God, John, what has happened?

The Present Continuous can be used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment.

You are being a nuisance.

"You are being bitter," said Karen.

2.When there are two actions one of which is in progress and the other is a habitual action, the first is expressed by the Present Continu­ous and the second by the Present Indefinite.

You never open your lips while you are painting.

I never talk while I am working.

2. The Present Continuous is used when people are talking about their future arrangements. The Future Indefinite is not used in such cases.

I'm leaving tonight.

He is coming to us tomorrow to stop till next month.

I'm playing golf tomorrow.

What are you doing tonight?

If not personal arrangements, but timetables, programs, etc. are described, the Present Indefinite should be used:

What time does the film begin?

The train leaves Bracknell at 10.03 and arrives in London at 11.05.

4.The Present Continuous is used to express a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, constantly, ever are used.

The earth is always moving.

 The sun is ever shining.

5.The Present Continuous is used to express an action thought of as a continual process (with the adverbs always, ever; constantly). The action is represented as going on without any interval.

She is always grumbling.

"She is constantly thinking of you," I said.

The difference between case 4 and case 5 is as follows: what is said in No. 4 is literally true, whereas in No. 5 there is an element of exag­geration, because the action in this case cannot go on without intervals. The exaggeration is generally called forth by emotion.

Verbs Not Used in the Continuous Form

It naturally follows from the definition of the Continuous form ("it denotes an action in a state of process at the present moment or at a definite moment in the past or future") that verbs which do not express a process are not used in the continuous form.

The following groups of verbs do not express a process:

1. verbs denoting sense perception (to see, to hear);
2. verbs denoting mental activity (to know, to believe);
3. verbs denoting wish (to want, to wish);
4. verbs denoting feeling (to love, to hate, to like);
5. verbs denoting abstract relations (to have, to consist, to depend, to belong).

In such expressions as to see the sights of, to see somebody home, to see somebody off the verb to see does not mean 'видеть', so it can be used in the Continuous form.

They were seeing the sights of London while their cousin waited for them at the hotel.

It is naturally possible to use the Continuous form of the verb to have in the expressions of the type to have dinner (lunch, supper), because it does not denote possession.

They are having lunch.

The verb to think cannot be used in the Continuous form if it denotes an opinion; it can if it denotes a process of thought.

I think you are right.

I am thinking of what you have just said.

The verb to admire cannot be used in the Continuous form if it means 'восхищаться'; it can if it means 'любоваться'.

"I hope you dote on Harry the Eighth!" "I admire him very much," said Carker.

What are you doing here, my poetic little friend? Admiring the moon, eh?

 Text: The structure of a telephone call.

Introducing yourself

Good morning/ afternoon/ evening,…

Hello, this is…from…

Hello, my name’s …calling from…

Stating reason for a call

I’m ringing to…

I’d like to…

I need some information about…

Saying who you want

I’d like to speak to…, please.

Could I have the … Department, please?

Is…there, please?

Saying someone is not available

I’m sorry he/ she’s not available…

Sorry, he/ she’s away/ not in/ in a meeting/ in Milan.

Leaving and taking messages

Could you give him/ her a message?

Can I leave him/ her a message?

Please tell him/ her…

Please ask him/ her to ring me on…

Can I take a message?

Would you like to leave a message?

If you give me your number I’ll ask him/ her to call you later.

Offering to help in other ways

Can anyone else help you?

Can I help you perhaps?

Would you like to speak to his assistant?

Shall I ask him to call you back?

Asking for repetition

Sorry, I didn’t catch your name/ your number/ your company name/ etc.

Sorry, could you repeat…?

Sorry,  I didn’t hear that.

Sorry,  I didn’t understand that.

Could you spell that/ your name, please?

Acknowledging repetition

Okay, I’ve got that now.

I understand, Mr…

I see, thank you.

Making arrangements

Could we meet some time next month?

When would be a good time?

Would Thursday at 5 o’clock suit you?

What about July 21^st?

That would be fine.

No, sorry, I can’t make it then.

Sorry, I’m too busy next week.

Changing arrangements

We’ve got an appointment for next month, but…

I’m afraid I can’t come on that day.

Could we fix an alternative.

Confirming information

So…

Can I check that? You said…

To confirm that…

Can I/ Can you confirm that by email?

Ending a call

Right. I think that’s all.

Thanks very much for you help.

Do call if you need anything else.

I look forward to…seeing you/ your call/ your letter/ your email/ our meeting.

Goodbye and thanks.

Bye for now.

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  Present Continuous?
2. Объясните способы образования Present Continuous?
3. Перечислите список глаголов, которые не употребляются во  временах группы Continuous.

Тема 6

Theme: Функции и перевод слова ONE

1.         Слово one, если оно стоит перед личной формой глагола, является формальным подлежащим неопределенно-личного предложения. В таких предложениях one на русский язык не переводится:

One must know for certain what to do.Нужно точно знать, что делать.

2.         Слово one (мн. ч. ones) может употребляться как заменитель ранее упомянутого исчисляемого существительного. В этом случае one переводится словом, которое заменяет, или совсем не переводится:

I have lost ту pen. I must buy one.Я потерял ручку. Я должен купить ручку.

Here are some pens. Which ones would you like to buyВот несколько ручек. Какие (ручки) вы хотели бы купить?

Перед one (ones) может стоять артикль the one или определяющие местоимения this one, another one, the blue ones. В этом случае на русский язык one обычно не переводится:

I don’t like this pen, show me another one.Мне не нравится эта ручка, покажите мне другую.What pens will you buy? — The blue ones.Какие ручки вы купите? — Синие ручки. Слово one в притяжательном падеже переводится на русский язык местоимением свой, своя, свое.

One should always keep one’s word. Надо всегда держать свое слово,

One часто употребляется в сочетании с модальными глаголами:

One should be attentive when working with financial documents.

Нужно быть внимательным при работе с финансовыми документами.

One may work in this laboratory only observing certain rules.

В этой лаборатории можно работать только при соблюдении определенных правил. Функции и перевод местоимения that

1.That (those) является указательным местоимением и переводится тот, та, то, те или этот, эта, это, эти: That book was published long ago.Та книга была опубликована давно.

2.That в функции подлежащего или дополнения переводится это:

That is not right. We understood that.Это не правильно. Мы поняли это.

3.That (those) как заместитель ранее упомянутого существительного либо переводится этим существительным, либо совсем не переводится:The height of this new house is larger than that of the old one.Высота этого нового дома больше, чем (высота) старого.

4. That в качестве относительного местоимения присоединяет определительные придаточные предложения,  заменяет  which, who, whom и переводится который, которая, которое, которые:The man that is sitting at the table is our teacher.Человек, который сидит за столом, наш учитель.

5. That в качестве союза присоединяет дополнительные придаточные предложения и переводится что: Не said that he would finish his report tomorrow.Он сказал, что закончит свой доклад завтра.

6.В качестве союза, присоединяющего придаточные предложения подлежащие и сказуемые, that переводится то, что:That he refused any help didn’t surprise anybody. To, что он отказался от любой помощи, никого не удивило.

7.That в качестве союза, вводящего обстоятельственное придаточное предложение цели, обычно в сочетании с so или in order, переводится для того, чтобы или чтобы: Enough time was given so that (in order that) everyone could get ready for the examination.Было дано достаточно времени для того, чтобы все смогли подготовиться к экзамену.

 Ex 1 .Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на значения слов one (ones).

1.         These shoes are too large; show me smaller ones, please. 2. One should be very attentive when crossing the street. 3. One never knows the result of the experiment. 4. This computer is less powerful than the one we need.5.This computer program allows one to work with financial documents.       6.One can expect better weather in two days. 7.    We want to buy a big TV for the sitting room and a smaller one for the kitchen. 8.          One must study hard to pass the examinations. 9.        That is clear without explanation. 10.           The methods they use are not the ones that lead to success. 11.            The more one reads, the more one knows. 12.This dictionary is too small; I’ll need a bigger one.

Ex2. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на значения слов that (those).

1. They knew that the advertising campaign was a failure. 2.          That was the work that they continued to do. 3. That he wanted to stay at his friends a little more wasn’t a news. 4.          She said that she wouldn’t buy the dress that she liked.5.          The problem is that they haven’t answered the enquiry. 6.  The question that was discussed at the meeting yesterday was very important. 7. Those buildings belong to our University.8.We didn’t expect that all those things were so important. 9.What was that he wanted?10.    The signature on this cheque is different from that in the letter.11.           The advice that you gave me is very important.12.  The requirements for a new party of goods are the same as those of the previous one.

Text: Economics as a science

Although the content and character of economics cannot be described briefly, numerous writers have attempted that. An especially useless, though once popular, example is: «Economics is what economists do.»

Similarly, a notable economist of the last century Alfred Marshall called economics «a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life.» Lionel Robbins in the 1930s described economics as «the science of choice among scarce means to accomplish unlimited ends» During much of modern history, especially in the nineteenth century, economics was called simply «the science of wealth.» Less seriously, George Bernard Shaw was credited in the early 1900s with the witticism that «economics is the science whose practitioners, even if all were laid end to end, would not reach agreement» We may make better progress by comparing economics with other subjects. Like every other discipline that attempts to explain observed facts (e.g., physics, astronomy, meteorology), economics comprises a vast collection of descriptive material organized around a central core of theoretical principles. The manner in which theoretical principles are formulated and used in  applications varies greatly from one science to another. Like psychology, economics draws much of its theoretical core from intuition, casual observation, and «common knowledge about human nature.» Like astronomy, economics is largely non experimental. Like meteorology, economics is relatively inexact, as is weather forecasting. Like particle physics and molecular biology, economics deals with an array of closely interrelated phenomena (as do sociology and social psychology). Like such disciplines as art, fantasy writing, mathematics, metaphysics, cosmology, and the like, economics attracts different people for different reasons: «One person’s meat is another person’s poison.» Though all disciplines differ, all are remarkably similar in one respect: all are meant to convey an interesting, persuasive, and intellectually satisfying story about selected aspects of experience. As Einstein once put it: «Science is the attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense-experience correspond to a logically uniform system of thought.»

Economics deals with data on income, employment, expenditure, interest rates, prices and individual activities of production, consumption, transportation, and trade. Economics deals directly with only a tiny fraction of the whole spectrum of human behavior, and so the range of problems considered by economists is relatively narrow. Contrary to popular opinion, economics does not normally include such things as personal finance, ways to start a small business, etc.; in relation to everyday life, the economist is more like an astronomer than a weather forecaster, more like a physical chemist than a pharmacist, more like a professor of hydrodynamics than a plumber.

In principle almost any conceivable problem, from marriage, suicide, capital punishment, and religious observance to tooth brushing, drug abuse, extramarital affairs, and mall shopping, might serve (and, in the case of each of these examples has served) as an object for some economist’s attention. There is, after all, no clear division between «economic» and «noneconomic» phenomena. In practice, however, economists have generally found it expedient to leave the physical and life sciences to those groups that first claimed them, though not always. In recent years economists have invaded territory once claimed exclusively by political scientists and sociologists, not to mention territories claimed by physical anthropologists, experimental psychologists, and paleontologists.

Glossary

Numerous- многочисленный

to attempt -попытаться

notable- примечательный

scarce -скудный, ограниченный

witticism ['witisizm] острота, шутка

practitioner [prask'tijng] терапевт

to comprise- включать в себя

vast -обширный, громадный

 core -ядро

casual observations зд.- повседневные наблюдения

weather forecasting -прогноз погоды

array -массив, масса, множество

closely interrelated -тесно взаимосвязанные

phenomena -явления

to convey- передавать

 income -доход

employment -занятость

expenditure -затраты, издержки, расход(ы)

interest rate -процентная ставка

range-ряд

pharmacist- фармацевт

plumber -водопроводчик

conceivable- мыслимый, вероятный, возможный

expedient - целесообразный(-о),соответствующий, подходящий, надлежащий

to claim -приписывать себе, претендовать

 to invade -вторгаться

Контрольные вопросы:

1. В каких случаях слово заменитель  one не переводятся   на русский  язык.

2. Особенности  роли  перевода  предложений  с  словом one.

3. Приведите   в  пример несколько предложений  с функцией one.

Тема 7

Theme: Conditional sentences

Условные предложения могут быть следующими:

1.         Предложения реального условия;

2.         Предложения нереального условия. Употребление глагольных форм в этих предложениях зависит от степени реальности и времени действия, выраженного глаголом.

Придаточные предложения реального условия и времени, действие которых отнесено к будущему  В придаточных предложениях условия и времени с союзами if (если), when (когда), after (после), before (перед тем, как), as soon as (как только), unless (если не), until (до тех пор, пока не) ,будущее время заменяется формой настоящего времени, но на русский язык переводится будущим, например:

If you help те (придаточное предл. условия), I shall do this work on time (главное предл.) . — Если ты помо¬жешь мне, я сделаю эту работу вовремя.

As soon as I am free, I’ll come to you. — Как только я освобожусь, я приду к тебе.

We shall not begin until you come. — Мы не начнем, пока ты не придешь.

Предложения нереального условия (Сослагательное наклонение)

Сослагательное наклонение выражает возможность, нереальность, предположительность действия.

а) действие относится к настоящему или будущему: If I knew his address I would write to him.Если бы я знал его адрес (сейчас), я написал бы ему (сейчас или в ближайшем будущем).

If the weather were fine he would so to the country. Если бы погода (сейчас) была хорошей, он бы поехал за город.

Глагол в придаточном предложении - в форме Past Indefinite, в главном - в форме Future in the Past. б)            действие относится к прошлому:

If the weather had been fine yesterday he would have gone to the country.

Если бы погода была вчера хорошей, он бы поехал за город.

В случае, если действие, описываемое сослагательным наклонением, относится к прошедшему времени, в главном предложении используется форма будущего совершенного с точки зрения прошедшего Future  Perfect in the Past, а в придаточном - прошедшее совершенное Past Perfect.

If I had known his address I would have written to him.

Если бы я знал его адрес (в прошлом), я написал бы ему (в прошлом же).

Сослагательное наклонение после глагола wish

Для выражения сожаления, относящегося к будущему, употребляются сочетания с глаголом could; для выражения пожелания на будущее, а также жалобы, просьбы или раздражения, употребляется would.

I wish I lived not far from here, (настоящее время).

I wish I could live not far from here, (будущее время).

Жаль, что я не живу поблизости.

I wish I had lived not far from here, (прошедшее время).

I wish I would live not far from here, (будущее время).

Жаль, что я не жил поблизости.

Примеры:

I wish it were not so cold. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы не было так холодно.

I wish I knew their address. Мне бы хотелось знать их адрес.

I wish I had made decision yesterday. Жаль, что я не принял решение вчера.

I wish you could send the answer as soon as possible. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы послали ответ как можно скорее.

We wish you would accept our offer. Нам бы хотелось, чтобы вы приняли наше предложение.

1. Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения.

1.         If I came later I would be late for the lesson. 2. If he had known the time-table he wouldn’t have missed the train. 3. It would be better if you learned to drive a car. 4. I wish I had known this before. 5. I would have sent a letter to you if I had known your address. 6. If I had met you yesterday I would have told you about it. 7. If I were in your place I wouldn’t buy the tickets beforehand. 8. If I had known that you needed help I would have helped you. 9. We wish you would visit us on Saturday.

2.  Переведите на русский язык.

1.         I wish the customers were not late as usual.

2.         I wish the letter hadn’t been so long.

3.         I wish you wouldn’t be slow.

4.         I wish I could go to my work by car.

5.         I wish it would stop raining.

3. Раскройте скобки.

Не (go) out when the weather (get) warmer. 2. I (wait) for you until you (come) back from school. 3. I’m afraid the train (start) before we (come) to the station. 4. We (go) to the country tomorrow if the weather (to be) fine.5.We (not pass) the examination next year if we not (work) much harder. 6. If you (not drive) more carefully you (have) an accident. 7. You (be) late if you (not take) a taxi. 8. I (finish) reading this book before I (go) to bed.9.You must (send) us a telegram as soon as you (arrive).10.We (have) a picnic tomorrow if it (be) a fine day. 11. We (go) out when it (stop) raining. 12. We (not to have) dinner until you (come). 13. I’m sure they (write) to us when they (know) our new address.

Theme: The Economic Environment

The economy comprises millions of people and thousands of firms as well as the government and local authorities, all taking decisions about prices and wages, what to buy, sell, produce, export, import and many other matters. All these organizations and the decisions they take play a prominent part in shaping the business environment in which firms exist and operate.

The economy is complicated and difficult to control and predict, but it is certainly important to all businesses. You should be aware that there are times when businesses and individuals have plenty of funds to spend and there are times when they have to cut back on their spending. This can have enormous implications for business as a whole.

When the economy is enjoying a boom, firms experience high sales and general prosperity. At such times, unemployment is low and many firms will be investing funds to enable them to produce more. They do this because consumers have plenty of money to spend and firms expect high sales. It naturally follows that the state of the economy is a major factor in the success of firms.

However, during periods when people have less to spend many firms face hard times as their sales fall. Thus, the economic environment alters as the economy moves into a recession. At that time, total spending declines as income falls and unemployment rises. Consumers will purchase cheaper items and cut expenditure on luxury items such as televisions and cars.

Changes in the state of the economy affect all types of business, though the extent to which they are affected varies. In the recession of the early 1990s the high street banks suffered badly. Profits declined and, in some cases, losses were incurred.

This was because fewer people borrowed money from banks, thus denying them the opportunity to earn interest on loans, and a rising proportion of those who did borrow defaulted on repayment. These so-called "bad debts" cut profit margins substantially. Various forecasters reckoned that the National Westminster Bank's losses in the case of Robert Maxwell's collapsing business empire amounted to over £100 million.

No individual firm has the ability to control this aspect of its environment. Rather, it is the outcome of the actions of all the groups who make up society as well as being influenced by the actions of foreigners with whom the nation has dealings.

Glossary

to comprise  – включать в себя, составлять

local authorities  – местные органы власти

to take (syn. to make) decisions  – принимать решения

to play a prominent part  – играть заметную (значительную) роль

to shape the environment  – формировать обстановку, среду, окружение

to predict (syn. to forecast)  – предсказывать

to be aware  – осознавать, знать

to cut back on spending  – сокращать расходы

enormous implications  – большое значение, смысл, влияние

general prosperity  – всеобщее процветание

to enable smb to do smth  – делать возможным для кого-то, позволять кому-либо что-либо делать

consumers  – потребители

to alter  – изменяться

a recession  – упадок

total spending  – общие, суммарные расходы

to decline  – снижаться

income  – доход

unemployment  – безработица

to purchase (syn. to buy)  – покупать

to cut expenditure  – сокращать расходы

luxury items  – предметы роскоши

to affect (syn. to influence smb. smth)  – влиять

the extent  – степень

to some extent  – в некоторой степени

the high street banks  – центральные банки

to suffer badly  – сильно пострадать

profits  – прибыль

to incur (syn. to bear, to suffer) losses  – нести убытки, потери

to borrow from  – занимать, брать взаймы

to deny the opportunity  – лишать возможности

to deny  – отрицать

to earn interest  – получать процентный доход

loans  – ссуды, займы

to default on repayment  – не выполнять обязательств по выплате

` debt  – долг

profit margins  – размеры прибыли

the outcome of the actions  – результат действий

to make up society  – составлять общество

to have dealings  – иметь торговые (деловые) связи

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  Conditional sentences?
2. Объясните способы образования  Условных предложений.
3. Перечислите  типы  условных предложений.

Тема 8

Theme:  If I do ... and If I did ...

A. Compare these examples:

  (1) Sue has lost her watch. She thinks it may be at Ann's house.

  SUE: I think I left my watch at your house. Have you seen it?

  ANN: No, but I'll have a took when I get home. If I find it, I'll tell you.

  In this example, Ann feels there is a real possibility that she will find the watch. So she says:

  If I find ..., I'll ....

  (2) Ann says: If I found a wallet in the street, I'd take it to the police.

  This is a different type of situation. Here, Ann is not thinking about a real possibility; she is imagining the situation and doesn't expect to find a wallet in the street. So she says:

  If I found ..., I'd (= I would) ... (not If I find ...,I'll)

  When you imagine something like this, you use if + past (if I found/if you were/if we didn't etc.). But the meaning is not past:

  * What would you do if you won a million pounds? (we don't really expect this to happen)

  * I don't really want to go to their party, but I probably will go. They'd be offended if I didn't go.

  * Sarah has decided not to apply for the job. She isn't really qualified for it, so she probably wouldn't get it if she applied.

    B. We do not normally use would in the if-part of the sentence:

  * I'd be very frightened if somebody pointed a gun at me. (not 'if somebody would point')

  * If I didn't go to their party, they'd be offended. (not 'If I wouldn't go')

  But it is possible to say 'if... would' when you ask somebody to do something:

  * (from a formal letter) I would be grateful if you would send me your brochure as soon as possible.

  * 'Shall I close the door?' 'Yes, please, if you would.'

    C. In the other part of the sentence (not the if-part) we use would ('d)/wouldn't:

  * If you took more exercise, you'd (= you would) probably feet healthier,

  * Would you mind if I used your phone?

* I'm not tired enough to go to bed yet. I wouldn't steep (if I went to bed now).

  Could and might are also possible:

  * If you took more exercise, you might feet healthier. (= it is possible that you would feel healthier)

  * If it stopped raining, we could go out. (= we would be able to go out)

    D. Do not use when in sentences like those on this page:

  * They would be offended if we didn't accept their invitation. (not 'when we didn't')

  * What would you do if you were bitten by a snake? (not 'when you were bitten')

  1 Put the verb into the correct form.

  1. They would be rather offended if I _didn't go_ to see them. (not/go)

  2. If you took more exercise, you _would feel_ better. (feel)

  3. If I was offered the job, I think I --- it. (take)

  4. I'm sure Amy will lend you the money. I'd be very surprised if she ---. (refuse)

  5. If I sold my car, I --- much money for it. (not/get)

  6. A lot of people would be out of work if the factory ---. (close down)

  7. What would happen if I --- that red button? (press)

  8. Liz gave me this ring. She --- very upset if I lost it. (be)

  9. Mark and Carol are expecting us. They would be disappointed if we ---. (not/come)

  10. Would Tim mind if I --- his bicycle without asking him? (borrow)

  11. If somebody --- in here with a gun, I'd be very frightened. (walk)

  12. I'm sure Sue --- if you explained the situation to her. (understand)

  2 You ask a friend questions. Use What would you do if ...?

  1. (Maybe one day your friend will win a lot of money.)

  _What would you do if you won a lot of money?_

  2. (Your friend's car has never been stolen but perhaps one day it will be.)

  What ---

  3. (Perhaps one day your friend will lose his/her passport.)

  4. (There has never been a fire in the building.)

 3 Answer the questions in the way shown.

  1. A: Shall we catch the 10.30 train?

  B: No. (arrive/too early) _If we caught the 10.30 train, we'd arrive too early._

  2. A:  Is Ken going to take the examination?

  B: No. (fall) If he ---

  3. A:  Why don't we stay at a hotel?

  B: No. (cost too much money) If ---

  4. A: Is Sally going to apply for the job?

  B: No. (not/get it) If ---

  5. A: Let's tell them the truth.

  B: No. (not/believe us) If ---

  6. A:  Why don't we invite Bill to the party?

  B: No. (have to invite his friends too)

  4 Use your own ideas to complete these sentences.

  1. If you took more exercise, _you'd feel better._

  2. I'd feel very angry if ---

  3. If I didn't go to work tomorrow ---

  4. Would you go to the party if ---

  5. If you bought some new clothes

  6. Would you mind if ---

Text:  Economic Systems

There are a number of ways in which a government can organize its economy and the type of system chosen is critical in shaping environment in which businesses operate.

An economic system is quite simply the way in which a country uses its available resources (land, workers, natural resources, machinery etc.) to satisfy the demands of its inhabitants for goods and services. The more goods and services that can be produced from these limited resources, the higher the standard of living enjoyed by the country's citizens.

There are three main economic systems:

Planned economics (Плановая экономика)

Planned economies are sometimes called "command economies" because the state commands the use of resources (such as labour and factories) that are used to produce goods and services as it owns factories, land and natural resources. Planned economies are economies with a large amount of central planning and direction, when the government takes all the decisions, the government decides production and consumption. Planning of this kind is obviously very difficult, very complicated to do, and the result is that there is no society, which is completely a command economy. The actual system employed varies from state to state, but command or planned economies have a number of common features.

Firstly, the state decides precisely what the nation is to produce. It usually plans five years ahead. It is the intention of the planners that there should be enough goods and services for all.

Secondly, industries are asked to comply -with these plans and each industry and factory is set a production target to meet.

If each factory and farm meets its target, then the state will meet its targets as set out in the five-year plans. You could think of the factory and farm targets to be objectives which, if met, allow the nation's overall aim to be reached.

A planned economy is simple to understand but not simple to operate. It does, however, have a number of advantages:

• Everyone in society receives enough goods and services to enjoy a basic standard of living.
• Nations do not waste resources duplicating production.
• The state can use its control of the economy to divert resources to wherever it wants. As a result, it can ensure that everyone receives a good education, proper health care or that transport is available.

Several disadvantages also exist. It is these disadvantages that have led to many nations abandoning planned economies over recent years:

• There is no incentive for individuals to work hard in planned economies.
• Any profits that are made are paid to the government.
• Citizens cannot start their own businesses and so new ideas rarely come forward.
• As a result, industries in planned economies can be very inefficient. A major problem faced by command or planned economies is that of deciding what to produce. Command economies tend to be slow when responding to changes in people's tastes and fashions. Planners are likely to underproduce some items as they cannot predict changes in demand. Equally, some products, which consumers regard as obsolete and unattractive, may be overproduced. Planners are afraid to produce goods and services unless they are sure substantial amounts will be purchased. This leads to delays and queues for some products.

Glossary

inhabitants  – жители, население

to own  – владеть

natural resources  – природные ресурсы

a large amount  – большой объем

central planning and direction  – центральное планирование и руководство

consumption  – потребление

obviously  – очевидно

complicated  – сложный

to have a number of common features  – иметь ряд общих черт

intention  – намерение

to comply with  – подчиняться

a production target to meet  – производственная задача (задание), кото­рую надо выполнить

an objective  – цель, задача

an overall aim  – общая цель

to enjoy a basic standard of living  – иметь основной уровень жизни

to duplicate production  – дублировать производство

to divert  – отвлекать (напр., ресурсы на другие цели)

to abandon  – отказываться от чего-либо

a major problem faced by command or planned economies  – основная про­блема, стоящая перед командной или плановой экономикой

changes in tastes and fashions  – изменения вкусов и моды

to underproduce  – недопроизводить

to regard smth as  – воспринимать что-либо, относиться к чему-либо как...

obsolete (sin. out of date)  – устарелый, вышедший из употребления

to overproduce  – перепроизводить

delays and queues  – зд. перебои (с товарами) и очереди

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Сравните разницу перевода предложений с If  I do и  If  I’ll do.
2. Объясните  разницу между  if I do – if  I did.
3. Приведите  при меры  на  английском  языке .

Тема 9

Theme: The Passive Voice

The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb.

The Present, Past and Future Indefinite Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

The Present, Past and Future Perfect Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.

There are three ways of translating the Passive Voice into Rus­sian:

(a)by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present the verb быть is not used.

(b)  by verbs in -ся.

(c) by means of indefinite-personal constructions (неопределен­но-личные предложения).

Houses are built of stone. — Дома строятся из камня. Дома строят из камня.

The house was built in 1932. — Дом (был) построен в 1932 году. Дом построили в 1932 году.

The experiment was made by a famous scientist. — Опыт был произведен знаменитым ученым. Опыт производился знаменитым ученым.

  1. Complete the sentences using one of these verbs in the correct form:

  cause  damage  hold  include  invite  make  overtake  show  translate  write

  1. Many accidents _are caused_ by dangerous driving.

  2. Cheese --- from milk.

  3. The roof of the building --- in a storm a few days ago.

  4. There's no need to leave a tip. Service --- in the bill.

  5. You --- to the wedding. Why didn't you go?

  6. A cinema is a place where films ---

  7. In the United States, elections for President --- every four years.

  8. Originally the book --- in Spanish and a few years ago it

  9. We were driving along quite fast but we --- by lots of other cars.

  2. Write questions using the passive. Some are present and some are past.

  1. Ask about the telephone. (when/invent?)

  _When was the telephone invented?_

  2. Ask about glass. (how/make?) How ---

  3. Ask about Australia. (when/discover?)

  4. Ask about silver. (what/use for?)

  5. Ask about television. (when/invent?)

  3 Put the verb into the correct form, present simple or past simple, active or passive.

  1. It's a big factory. Five hundred people _are employed_ (employ) there.

  2. Water --- (cover) most of the Earth's surface.

  3. Most of the Earth's surface --- (cover) by water.

  4. The park gates --- (lock) at 6.30 p.m. every evening.

  5. The letter --- (post) a week ago and it --- (arrive) yesterday.

  6. The boat --- (sink) quickly but fortunately everybody --- (rescue)

  7. Ron's parents --- (die) when he was very young. He and his sister --- (bring) up by their grandparents.

  8. I was born in London but I --- (grow) up in the north of England.

  9. While I was on holiday, my camera --- (steal) from my hotel room.

  10. While I was on holiday, my camera --- (disappear) from my hotel room.

  11. Why --- (Sue/resign) from her job? Didn't she enjoy it?

  12. Why --- (Bill/sack) from his job? What did he do wrong?

  13. The company is not independent. It --- (own) by a much larger company.

 Text: Three economic issues

Economics is the study of how people choose to allocate scarce resources to satisfy their unlimited wants. The main problem in economics is the question of allocating scarce resources between competing uses. In this section three economic issues are discussed to show how society allocates its scarce resources between competing uses. In this connection the question what, how and for whom to produce is of great significance.

The oil price shocks

Oil is an important commodity in modem economies. Oil and its derivatives provide fuel for heating, transport, and machinery, and arc basic inputs for the manufacture of industrial petrochemicals and many household products ranging from plastic utensils to polyester clothing. From the beginning of this century until 1973 the use of oil Increased steadily. Over much of this period the price of oil fell in comparison -with the prices of other products. Economic activity was organized on the assumption of cheap and abundant oil. In 1973  – 74 there was an abrupt change. The main oil-producing nations, mostly located in the Middle East but including also Venezuela and Nigeria, belong to OPEC — the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Recognizing that together they produced most of the world's oil, OPEC decided in 1973 to raise the price at which this oil was sold. Although higher prices encourage consumers of oil to try to economize on its use, OPEC countries correctly forecast that cutbacks in the quantity demanded would be small since most other nations were very dependent on oil and had few commodities available as potential substitutes for oil. Thus OPEC countries correctly anticipated that a substantial price increase would lead to only a small reduction in sales. It would be very profitable for OPEC members.

Oil prices are traditionally quoted in US dollars per barrel. Fig. 1 shows the price of oil from 1970 to 1986. Between 1973 and 1974 the price of oil tripled, from $2,90 to $9 per barrel. After a more gradual rise between 1974 and 1978 there was another sharp increase between 1978 and 1980, from $12 to $30 per barrel. The dramatic price increases of 1973  – 79 and 1980  – 82 have become known as the OPEC oil price shocks, not only because they took the rest of the world by surprise but also because of the upheaval they inflicted on the world economy, which had previously been organized on the assumption of cheap oil prices.

People usually respond to prices in this or that way. When the price of some commodity increases, consumers will try to use less of it but producers will want to sell more of it. These responses, guided by prices, are part of the process by which most Western societies determine what, how and for whom to produce. Consider first how the economy produces goods and services. When, as in the 1970s, the price of oil increases six-fold, every firm will try to reduce its use of oil-based products.

Chemical firms will develop artificial substitutes for petroleum inputs to their production processes; airlines will look for more fuel-efficient aircraft; electricity will be produced from more coal-fired generators. In general, higher oil prices make the economy produce in a way that uses less oil.

How does the oil price increase affect what is being produced? Finns and households reduce their use of oil-intensive products, which are now more expensive. Households switch to gas-fired central heating and buy smaller cars. Commuters form car-pools or move closer to the city. High prices not only choke off the demand for oil-related commodities; they also encourage consumers to purchase substitute commodities. Higher demand for these commodities bids up their price and encourages their production. Designers produce smaller cars, architects contemplate solar energy, and research laboratories develop alternatives to petroleum in chemical production. Throughout the economy, what is being produced reflects a shift away from expensive oil-using products towards less oil-intensive substitutes. The for whom question in this example has a clear answer. OPEC revenues from oil sales increased from $35 billion in 1973 to nearly $300 billion in 1980. Much of this increased revenue was spent on goods produced in the industrialized Western nations. In contrast, oil-importing nations had to give up more of their own production in exchange for the oil imports that they required. In terms of goods as a whole, the rise in oil prices raised the buying power of OPEC and reduced the buying power of oil-importing countries such as Germany and Japan. The world economy was producing more for OPEC and less for Germany and Japan. Although it is the most important single answer to the 'for whom' question, the economy is an intricate, interconnected system and a disturbance anywhere ripples throughout the entire economy.

In answering the 'what' and 'how' questions, we have seen that some activities expanded and others contracted following the oil price shocks. Expanding industries may have to pay higher wages to attract the extra labour that they require. For example, in the British economy coal miners were able to use the renewed demand for coal to secure large wage Increases. The opposite effects may have been expected if the 1986 oil price slump had persisted.

The OPEC oil price shocks example illustrates how society allocates scarce resources between competing uses.

A scarce resource is one for which the demand at a zero price would exceed the available supply. We can think of oil as having become more scarce in economic terms when its price rose.

Glossary

to allocate resources  – распределять ресурсы

scarce resources  – ограниченные, скудные ресурсы

scarcity  – дефицит

to satisfy unlimited wants  – удовлетворять неограниченные потребности

competing uses  – конкурирующие сферы использования

to be of great significance  – иметь большое значение

commodity (syn. good)  – товар, предмет широкого потребления

modern economy  – современная экономика

oil and its derivatives  – нефть и нефтепроизводные

to provide fuel for heating and transport  – обеспечивать топливом систе­мы теплоснабжения и транспорт

basic inputs  – основные составляющие

to range from... to...  – от... до...

plastic utensils  – изделия из пластика

polyester clothing  – одежда из синтетических тканей

to increase [-z], v. steadily  – постоянно увеличиваться

increase [-s], n.  – увеличение

over much of this period  – большая часть этого периода

in comparison with (syn. as compared with)  – по сравнению с

on the assumption of  – исходя из предположения (допущения)

abundant oil  – нефть, имеющаяся в изобилии, избытке

an abrupt change  – резкое изменение

oil-producing nations  – страны, производящие нефть

to be located in  – располагаться в

to belong to  – принадлежать

OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)  – ОПЕК (Организация стран  – экспортеров нефти)

to raise the price  – повышать цену

(о encourage consumers  – побуждать, поощрять потребителей

to economize on its use  – экономить на использовании

to forecast correctly  – правильно прогнозировать

cutbacks in quantity demanded  – сокращения требуемого количества

to be dependent on oil  – быть зависимым от нефти

to be available (syn. to be in stock; ant. to be out of stock)  – иметься в наличии potential substitutes  – потенциальные (возможные) заменители

to anticipate  – предсказывать, предвидеть, прогнозировать

substantial price increase [-s]  – существенное, значительное повышение цен

to lead (led, led) to (syn. to cause, to entail, to result in)  – привести к

reduction in sales  – сокращение продаж

to be profitable for  – быть прибыльным, выгодным

OPEC members — страны  – члены ОПЕК.

to quote prices in US dollars per barrel  – назначать, котировать цены в долларах США за баррель

to triple ['tripl] – возрастать в три раза, утраивать

a gradual rise – постепенное увеличение

sharp, dramatic increase – резкое повышение

to take by surprise – застать врасплох

upheaval [i:] – переворот

to inflict upheaval on the world economy  – наносить удар по (причинять ущерб) мировой экономике

to respond to prices – реагировать на цены

a producer – производитель

to determine what, how and for whom to produce  – определять что, как и для кого производить

to increase six-fold – возрастать в шесть раз

oil-based products – нефтепродукты

artificial substitutes for petroleum  – искусственные заменители бензина production processes  – производственные процессы

fuel-efficient aircraft  – самолет с экономичным расходом топлива

oil-intensive products  – продукты с высоким содержанием нефти

switch to  – переключиться на

commuters  – жители пригорода, регулярно приезжающие в город на работу или учебу

car-pools  – группа людей, договорившихся по очереди обслуживать друг друга автомашиной

to choke off the demand  – задушить спрос

substitute commodities  – товары-заменители

to bid up the price  – наращивать цену

to encourage production  – стимулировать производство

to contemplate solar energy  – рассматривать (обдумывать) вопрос об использовании солнечной энергии

to reflect a shift away from... towards (to)...  – отражать переход (смену, замену) от... к...

OPEC revenues  – доходы стран  – членов ОПЕК

nearly $300 billion  – почти 300 миллиардов долларов

industrialized Western nations  – индустриальные (промышленные) за­падные страны

in contrast  – по контрасту

oil-importing nations  – страны, импортирующие нефть

to give up the production  – отказаться (прекратить) от производства

in exchange for  – в обмен на

to require  – требовать

the buying (syn. purchasing, spending) power  – покупательная способность

an intricate interconnected system  – сложная взаимосвязанная система

a disturbance  – нарушение равновесия, отклонение, срыв

to ripple throughout the entire economy  – прокатиться волной через всю экономику

some activities expanded/contracted  – некоторые виды деятельности расширились/сократились

to pay higher wages to attract the extra labour  – платить более высокую зарплату для привлечения дополнительной рабочей силы

to renew  – восстанавливать, возобновлять

demand for  – спрос на

to secure wage increases  – добиваться повышения зарплаты

price slump  – резкое снижение цен

to persist  – сохраняться, продолжать существовать

to exceed  – превышать

the available supply  – имеющееся предложение

to become more scarce in economic terms  – стать более скудным, недос­таточным в экономическом смысле

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  Passive  Voice?
2. Объясните способы образования Passive Voice .
3. По каким правилам употребляется  предлоги by и  with  в Passive Voice.

Тема 10

Theme: Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Nouns can be:

•        singular or plural countable [C]: pen, pens

This simply means that it is possible for us to count them. They exist as separate units.

•        uncountable [U]: advice, damage, information, furniture, money, oil

These are nouns that can be measured or weighed, but not counted. Abstract nouns that describe concepts or feelings, such as love, fear, time are also uncountable.

Countable (C)

Singular:     man   shelf            box

Plural:         men   shelves        boxes

Uncountable (U)   sand, ink, coffee, glass

In some cases we can make uncountable nouns countable by describing their container or weight etc.:

a bottle of ink;      a cup of coffee;             a box of tea

or by considering them as a specific item:

Can I give you a piece of advice?

We use some:

• with plural, countable nouns, and uncountable nouns in positive sentences.

There are some visitors waiting to see you.

There is some fresh coffee for you.

• in offers and requests.

Would you like some tea / advice / help.

Could I have some information about loans, please?

• when we can see what we want or if we expect the answer to be yes.

Could I have some coffee, please?

Is there some photocopy paper?

We use any with uncountable and plural, countable nouns in negatives and questions.

•      to say there is nothing.

We haven’t got any brochures left.

There isn’t any money in petty cash.

•      to ask if something exists or is available.

Do we have any copies of their latest price list?

Is there any mineral water?

1        Complete these sentences using a, some or any.

1        Is there _________cash machine anywhere near here?

2        Do you have_________Swiss  francs?

3        I’ll need to get_________money.

4        Do you have___________information about these?

5        We don’t have __________US dollars today.

2   Complete the tables and rule using a, some, or any.

RULE: With countable and uncountable nouns we use________ __for postitive statements and            _____________for negative statements.

3.       Complete these sentences using a, some or any.

1        The price of______basic goods went up when they introduced the euro.

2        We don’t have_____coffee left. We need to buy______more.

3        _______customers are never satisfied.

4        I have found________mistake n my bank statement.

5        Have you got_______ change for the parking meter?

6        There’s________fifty euro note on the floor. It's my lucky day!        

 4.      Study a-f. When do we use much, a lot of, lots of and many?

a        How many Swiss francs would you like to order?

b        How much money have we got in our bank account?

с            The bank closes in half an hour, so we haven’t got much time. Hurry up!

d       Oh dear, there aren’t many cheques left. Can you order another cheque book?

e        A lot of /Lots of people believe that cash-machines are unreliable.

f        I waste a lot of/lots of time queuing at the bank.

5.       Complete sentences 1-7 with much/many, a lot of/lots of.

1        Let’s decide how_______money we need to borrow.

2        How________receipts are still missing?

3        There isn’t very________information in this brochure.

4        They found________unpaid bills on the boss’s desk.

5        So tell me, how   _______people work in this company?

6. There is __________noise outside. Please go and see what’s happening.

 Text: The role of banks

The following story is going to explain the role of banks. In the past most societies used different objects as money. Some of these were valuable because they were rare and beautiful, others- because they could be eaten or used. Early forms of money like these were used to buy goods. They were also used to pay for marriages, fines and debts. But although everyday objects were extremely practical kinds of cash in many ways, they had some disadvantages, too.

 For example, it was difficult to measure their value accurately, divide some of them into a wide range of amounts, keep some of them for a long time, use them to make financial plans for the future. For reasons such as these, some societies began to use another kind of money, that is, precious metals.

People used gold, gold bullion, as money. Those were dangerous times, and people wanted a safe place to keep their gold.

So they deposited it with goldsmiths, people who worked with gold for jewellery and so on and also had a guarded vault to keep it safe in. And when people wanted some of their gold to pay for things with, they went and fetched it from the goldsmith.

Two developments turned these goldsmiths into bankers. The first was that people found it a lot easier to give the seller a letter than it was to fetch some gold and then physically hand it over to him. This letter transferred some of the gold they had at the goldsmith's to the seller. This letter we would nowadays call a cheque. And, of course, once these letters or cheques, became acceptable as a way of paying for goods, people felt that the gold they had deposited with the goldsmith, was just as good as gold in their own pockets. And as letters or cheques, were easier to carry around than gold, and a lot less dangerous, people started to say that their money holdings were what they had with them plus their deposits. So a system of deposits was started. The second development was that goldsmiths realized they had a great deal of unused gold lying in their vaults doing nothing. This development was actually of greater importance than the first.

Now let's turn to the first bank loan ever and see what happened. A firm asked a goldsmith for a loan. The goldsmith realized that some of the gold in his vault could be lent to the firm, and of course he asked the firm to pay it back later with a little interest. Of course, at that moment the goldsmith was short of gold, it wasn't actually his gold, but he reckoned it was unlikely that everyone who had deposited gold with him would want it back at the same time, at any rate – not before the firm had repaid him his gold with a little interest. He thought it safe enough.

To understand what actually happened in. this simple transaction let's consider the following table.The first row shows what the goldsmith did before he made this loan. He had a hundred dollars of gold, which he owed to the people who had deposited it with him, so his assets and liabilities were the same. But when he lent, say, $10 of gold to the firm, he actually had only $90 of gold in his vault plus the value of his loan. His assets still equalled his liabilities, but he was going to get some interest.

It so happened that the firm, that took out the loan, didn't really want to carry that $10 of gold around, so it asked the goldsmith if, instead of actually taking the gold, it could be given a deposit. The third row of Tabl. 6 shows what happened then.

 Although the goldsmith's assets and liabilities were the same, but were then worth $110, not $100. When the firm wrote a cheque for $10, and that person came in to collect his $10 worth of gold, the goldsmith's assets failed, but so did his liabilities (the fourth row of the table). The important point to notice here is that it made no difference to the goldsmith whether his initial loan was in actual gold or in a form of a deposit.

Now let's turn to the question of reserves. Reserves are the amount of gold that is immediately available in the vault to meet depositors' demands. People originally deposited $100 of gold with the goldsmith. The goldsmith lent $10, leaving himself with $90. As a banker he was relying on the fact that not everyone would want their gold back at the same time. If they had done, he couldn't have paid out. His reserves of $90 were not enough.

The goldsmith in the table has a 100% reserve ratio. The reserve ratio is the ratio of reserves to deposits. Once he has made his loan, he has a 90% deposit ratio. This is a small risk with a small profit. How much dare he lend out in order to make a profit through his interest charges?

What are the risks involved Suppose the goldsmith took too much of a risk. He lent 80% of the gold he had. This panicked people.

They doubted he could pay them all back, he was bound to lose some of the gold he had lent, so they rushed to get their gold back before it was too late. That was what we would now call a run on the bank, a financial panic. And the financial panic leads to exactly what people fear. the bank cannot pay them, goes bankrupt, and they go bankrupt as well.

Glossary

rare  – редкий

fines  – штрафы

to measure their value accurately  – точно измерить их стоимость (цен­ность)

to divide into a wide range of amounts  – разделить на много частей (ма­леньких или больших)

precious metals  – драгоценные металлы

gold bullion  – золотой слиток

to deposit with  – хранить, вкладывать

a goldsmith  – золотых дел мастер

worked with gold for jewellery  – делал золотые украшения

a guarded vault  – охраняемый подвал, хранилище

to fetch  – приносить, доставать

to transfer  – переводить, передавать

once these letters or cheques, became acceptable as a way of paying for goods  – как только (когда) эти письма, или чеки, стали приниматься при оплате товаров

their money holdings  – деньги, которые им принадлежали, которыми они владели

a bank loan  – банковская ссуда, заем

a little interest  – небольшой процент

the goldsmith was short of gold  – у мастера не было достаточно золота

to reckon  – полагать, считать

at any rate  – во всяком случае

a transaction  – сделка

to owe  – быть должным

assets and liabilities  – активы и пассивы

the value of his loan  – стоимость ссуды, которую он дал

to equal  – равняться, быть равным

the firm didn't really want to carry that gold around, so it asked the gold­smith

if, instead of actually taking the gold, it could be given a deposit  – фир­ма не хотела держать золото при себе (носить золото с собой) и вместо того, чтобы на самом деле его забрать, попросила мастера принять это золото на хранение в виде вклада

(they) were worth $110  – их стоимость составляла 110

to write (syn. to draw, to issue, to make out) a cheque  – выписать чек

his assets failed  – зд. его активы снизились

to fail  – (о банках) обанкротиться

initial loan  – первоначальная ссуда

reserves  – резервы

the amount of gold that is immediately available in the vault  – запасы (ко­личество) золота, которое всегда находится (и может быть немедленно получено) в хранилище банка

depositors' demands  – требования вкладчиков

leaving himself with $90  – оставив себе только 90 долларов

to rely on  – рассчитывать, надеяться на что-либо

the reserve ratio  – резервная норма

dare  – осмеливаться

to make a profit through his interest charges  – получить прибыль за счет платежа процентов

What are the risks involved?  – Чем он рискует?

to panic (panicked)  – пугать, приводить в панику to doubt  – сомневаться

he was bound to lose some of the gold  – он непременно должен был по­терять часть золота

a run on the bank  – натиск вкладчиков на банк

the financial panic  – финансовая паника

to fear  – опасаться, страшиться

to go bankrupt  – обанкротиться

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Приведите  примеры  на uncountable and  countable  nouns.
2. Объясните способы образования  uncountable  nouns.
3. По каким правилам  образуется вопросительная  и отрицательная  форма  countable  nouns.

Тема 11

Theme:  Past simple

Positive: Subject + base form of the verb + -ed

Negative: Subject + did not + base form of the verb

Questions: Did + subject + base form of the verb

Remember that many verbs are irregular.

We use the past simple to describe:

•a single action or a series of completed past actions. They arrived at the shop, unloaded the goods, and drove away.

past habits and states.

They worked in the Chicago branch for four years.

How long did you work there?

The endings of regular verbs are pronounced according to how we say the final consonant of the verb. The final -ed is only pronounced /id/ after verbs ending in -t for -d.

We form the negative with did+not (=didn’t). This does not change.

They didn’t know the answer.

We also use did to form questions in the past.

When did this letter arrive?

not When did this letter arrived?

Did they give you the order?

When who, what, or which are the subject of the question, we don’t use did.

Who told you?

What happened to their invoice?

Which salesperson took your order?

1. We make the simple past of regular verbs by adding –ed. Identify the regular verbs in articles A and В and group them by the way we pronounce their ending.

2.       Match the questions (1-5) to the answers (a-e) below.

1        What did Ian take over?

2        Did Ian decide to export further?

3        Where did Michael go?

4        Who did Michael meet in the UAE?

5        Why did Ian employ an expert?

a        Because the learning curve was so steep.

b        A Sheikh.

с        To the United Arab Emirates,

d       Brinsea Products.

e        Yes, he did.

3.       Write questions for the following answers.

1        I went to Cologne on my last trip.

2        I went to look for new customers.

3        I met the Managing Director of JX,

4        Yes, thanks, I did. (enjoy my trip)

4 . Complete the text by changing the verbs in bracket into the past simple.

When Melinda Harper¹          _________(be) on holiday in Mexico, she²________(visit) a poor village where she³_________(find) some beautiful and unusual ornaments made from stone. She ⁴__________(know) than

European customers would like them and she⁵_________(see) an opportunity to improve the lives of the villagers.They⁶_________(go) into business together and⁷________(form) a co-operative. At first they⁸_________(think) of selling by mail order, but Melinda⁹____________(understand) that people¹⁰_____________(need)to see the products for themselves. She¹¹________(spend) a year visiting gift shops, but¹²_____________(discover) that stores¹³_________________(not want) to keep expensive stock. After long discussions she¹⁴_________(take) a risk and¹⁵_________(give) samples to stores to display. The store¹⁶__________(take) the orders and emailed them to the factory.

The factory then¹⁷__________(send) the object to the customer. After a slow start the business¹⁸_________(grow) dramatically. She¹⁹_________(tell) us that the secret of success was finding trading partners she²⁰_______(trust) and a reliable way of sending the goods to her customers.

Text: Banking

The goldsmith bankers were an early example of a financial intermediary.

A financial intermediary is an institution that specializes in bringing lenders and borrowers together.

A commercial bank borrows money from the public, crediting them with a deposit. The deposit is a liability of the bank. It is money owed to depositors. In turn the bank lends money to firms, households or governments wishing to borrow.

Banks are not the only financial intennediaries. Insurance companies, pension funds, and building societies also take in money in order to relend it. The crucial feature of banks is that some of their liabilities are used as a means of payment, and are therefore part of the money stock.

Commercial banks are financial intermediaries with a government license to make loans and issue deposits, including deposits against, which cheques can be written.

Let's start by looking at the present-day UK banking system. Although the details vary from country to country, the general principle is much the same everywhere.

In the UK, the commercial banking system comprises about 600 registered banks, the National Girobank operating through post offices, and a dozen trustee saving banks. Much the most important single group is the London clearing banks. The clearing banks are so named because they have a central clearing house for handling payments by cheque.

A clearing system is a set of arrangements in which debts between banks are settled by adding up all the transactions in a given period and paying only the net amounts needed to balance inter-bank accounts.

Suppose you bank with Barclays but visit a supermarket that banks with Lloyds. To pay for your shopping you write a cheque against your deposit at Barclays. The supermarket pays this cheque into its account at Lloyds. In turn, Lloyds presents the cheque to Barclays, which will credit Lloyds' account at Barclays and debit your account at Barclays by an equivalent amount. Because you purchased goods from a supermarket using a different bank, a transfer of funds between the two banks is required. Crediting or debiting one bank's account at another bank is the simplest way to achieve this.

However on the same day someone else is probably writing a cheque on a Lloyds' deposit account to pay for some stereo equipment from a shop banking with Barclays. The stereo shop pays the cheque into its Barclays' account, increasing its deposit. Barclays then pays the cheque into its account at Lloyds where this person's account is simultaneously debited. Now the transfer flows from Lloyds to Barclays.

Although in both cases the cheque writer's account is debited and the cheque recipient's account is credited, it does not make sense for the two banks to make two separate inter-bank transactions between themselves.

The clearing system calculates the net flows between the member clearing banks and these are the settlements that they make between themselves. Thus the system of clearing cheques represents another way society reduces the costs of making transactions.

The Balance Sheet of the London Clearing Banks. Балансовый отчет лон­донских клиринговых банков

Cash assets are notes and coin in the banks' vaults. However, modem banks' cash assets also include their cash reserves deposited with the Bank of England. The Bank of England (usually known as the Bank) is the central bank or banker to the commercial banks.

Apart from cash, the other entries on the asset side of the balance sheet show money that has been lent out or used to purchase interest-earning assets. The second item, bills and market loans, shows short-term lending in liquid assets.

Liquidity refers to the speed and the certainty with which an asset can be converted back into money, whenever the asset-holders desire. Money itself is thus the most liquid asset of all.

The third item, advances, shows lending to households and firms. A firm that has borrowed to see it through a sticky period may not be able to repay whenever the bank demands. Thus, although advances represent the major share of clearing bank lending, they are not very liquid forms of bank lending. The fourth item, securities, shows bank purchases of interest-bearing long-term financial assets. These can be government bonds or industrial shares. Although these assets are traded daily on the stock exchange, so in principle these securities can be cashed in any time the bank wishes, their price fluctuates from day to day. Banks cannot be certain how much they will get when they sell out. Hence financial investment in securities is also illiquid.

The final two items on the asset side of the balance sheet show lending in foreign currencies and miscellaneous bank assets. Total assets of the London clearing banks were £200,1 billion. We now shall examine how the equivalent liabilities were made up.

Deposits are chiefly of two kinds: sight deposits and time deposits. Whereas sight deposits can be -withdrawn on sight whenever the depositor wishes, a minimum period of notification must be given before time deposits can be withdrawn. Sight deposits are the bank accounts against, which we write cheques, thereby running down our deposits without giving the bank any prior warning. Whereas most banks do not pay interest on sight deposits or cheque (checking) accounts, they can afford to pay interest on time deposits. Since they have notification of any withdrawals, they have plenty of time to sell off some of their high- interest investments or call in some of their high-interest loans in order to have the money to pay out deposits.

Certificates of deposit (CDs) are an extreme form of time deposit where the bank borrows from the public for a specified period of time and knows exactly when the loan must be repaid. The final liability items in Таbl 7 show deposits in foreign currencies, miscellaneous liabilities, such as cheques, in the process of clearing.

Glossary

a financial intermediary  – финансовый посредник

to bring together  – соединять, сводить вместе

insurance companies  – страховые компании

pension funds  – пенсионные фонды

the money stock  – денежная масса, деньги в обращении

to issue deposits  – открывать вклады

the National Girobank  – англ. Национальный жиробанк

trustee saving banks  – доверительные сберегательные банки

London clearing banks  – лондонские клиринговые банки (банки  – чле­ны расчетной палаты)

a central clearing house  – центральная расчетная палата

inter-bank accounts  – межбанковские счета

Barclays  – Барклайз банк (Великобритания)

Lloyds  – Ллойдз банк (Великобритания)

to credit  – кредитовать

to debit  – дебетовать

cheque recipient  – получатель чека

cash assets  – денежные активы

the Bank of England  – Банк Англии, Английский банк

interest-earning (syn. interest-bearing) assets  – активы, приносящие про­центный доход

bills and market loans  – векселя и рыночные займы

short-term lending  – краткосрочное кредитование

liquid (ant. illiquid) assets  – ликвидные активы

 liquidity  – ликвидность

advances  – ссуда в виде аванса

a sticky period  – трудный период

securities  – ценные бумаги

interest-bearing long-term financial assets  – долгосрочные финансовые активы, приносящие процентный доход

government bonds  – государственные облигации

industrial shares  – промышленные акции

the stock exchange  – фондовая биржа 

miscellaneous bank assets  – прочее имущество банка

sight deposit  – депозит до востребования; бессрочный вклад

time deposit  – срочный вклад

to withdraw  – отзывать (вклад)

to run down a deposit  – уменьшать вклад

cheque (checking) accounts  – текущий (чековый) счет

to sell off  – распродавать

call in high-interest loans  – требовать возврата займов (требовать уплаты процентов)

certificates of deposit  – депозитные сертификаты

miscellaneous liabilities  – прочие (другие) пассивы

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  прошедшее неопределенное время?
2. Объясните способы образования  Past Simple.
3. Перечислите список неправильных глаголов.

Тема 12

Theme: The Future Simple

 The formation of the Future Indefinite.

The Future Indefinite is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive without to of the  verb.

Shall is used for the first person singular and plural. In British English prescriptive tradition forbids will as a future auxiliary with the first person singular and plural, but this tradition is old-fashioned and is nowadays widely ignored. It is recommended though to use shall, in preference to will, with the first person in formal style.

Will is used for the first, second and the third person singular and plural. In informal style the contracted form ‘ll  is used for all the persons. In American English only will is used with all the persons.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb. Shall is still used in

British English in questions with the first person singular and plural.

The use of the Future Indefinite.

The Future Indefinite is used to denote a future action.

It will be much cooler up at Fiesole.

N o t e. To denote a future action the word combinations to be going + Infinitive, to be about + Infinitive, and to be on the point of + Gerund are often used.To be going to, to be about to, to be on the point of denote an action which is expected to take place in the nearest future. To be going to is colloquial, to be on the point of is literary.

This is going to be a cheerful evening. (

The runners are about to start.

The Future Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the future perfec­tive and imperfective.

I will read ten chapters tomorrow. — Завтра я прочту десять глав.

I will read the whole day tomorrow. — Завтра я буду читать целый день.

Will/shall

    A. We use I'll (= I will) when we decide to do something at the time of speaking:

  * Oh, I've left the door open. I'll go and shut it.

  * 'What would you like to drink?' 'I'll have an orange juice, please.'

  * 'Did you phone Ruth?' 'Oh no, I forgot. I'll phone her now.'

  1. Complete the sentences with I'll + a suitable verb.

  1. I'm too tired to walk home. I think I'll get a taxi.

  2. 'It's a bit cold in this room.' 'Is It? --- on the heating then.'

  3. 'We haven't got any milk.' 'Oh, haven't we? --- and get some.'

  4. 'Do you want me to do the washing-up?' 'No, it's all right. --- it.'

  5. 'I don't know how to use this computer.' 'OK, --- you.'

  6. 'Would you like tea or coffee? '--- coffee, please.'

  7. 'Goodbye! Have a nice holiday.' 'Thanks. --- you a postcard.'

  8. Thank you for lending me your camera. --- it back to you on Monday, OK?

  9. 'Are you coming with us?' 'No, I think --- here.'

  2 Read the situations and write sentences with I think I'll ... or I don't think I'll ...

  1. It's a bit cold. You decide to close the window. You say: I think I'll close the window.

  2. You are feeling tired and it's quite late. You decide to go to bed. You say: I think ---

  3. A friend of yours offers you a lift in his car but you decide to walk. You say: Thank you but ---

  4. You arranged to play tennis today. Now you decide that you don't want to play. You say: I don't think ---

  5. You were going to go swimming. Now you decide that you don't want to go. ---

  3. Which is correct?

  1. 'Did you phone Ruth?' 'Oh no, I forgot. _I phone (X)/I'll phone (O)_ her now.' (I'll phone is correct)

  2. I can't meet you tomorrow afternoon. _I'm playing (O)/I'll play (X)_ tennis. (I'm playing is correct)

  3. _'I meet/I'll meet_ you outside the hotel in half an hour, OK?' 'Yes, that's fine.'

  4. 'I need some money.' 'OK, _I'm lending/I'll lend_ you some. How much do you need?'

  5. _I'm having/I'll have_ a party next Saturday. I hope you can come.

  6. 'Remember to buy a newspaper when you go out.' 'OK. _I don't forget/I won't forget.'_

  7. What time _does your train leave/will your train leave_ tomorrow?

  8. I asked Sue what happened but she _doesn't tell/won't tell_ me.

  9. _'Are you doing/Will you do_ anything tomorrow evening?' 'No, I'm free. Why?'

  10. I don't want to go out alone. _Do you come/Will you come_ with me?

  11. It's a secret between us. I promise _I don't tell/I won't tell_ anybody.

                        Text: Monetary Policy (Кредитно-Денежная Политика)

Monetary policy is one of the main instruments of macroeconomics. It is based on the ability of the Central bank to control the money supply, which leads to changes in interest rates and the exchange rate, and therefore in the amount of investment, which influences directly the national output. This method of controlling the economy centres on adjusting the amount of money in circulation in the economy and so the level of spending and economic activity.

 Monetary policy was first employed as a means of control in the 1950s, but has been more widely used since the 1970s. The Central Bank plays a major role in the implementation of a nation's monetary policy. In some countries (for example, Germany) the Central Bank operates monetary policy independent of government policy. However, the UK's Central Bank, the Bank of England, implements monetary policy on behalf of the government. Monetary policy has three main aspects:

• Controlling the money supply
• Controlling interest rates
• Managing the exchange rate

In this section we study the ways in which a central bank can control the supply of money in the economy. The aim of the authorities when controlling the money supply is to limit the amount borrowed, and hence spent, by businesses and individuals during a inflationary period. It is hoped in this way to limit the level of overall demand in the economy and thus to remove or reduce inflationary pressure. During a recession monetary policy is aimed at increasing the money supply to encourage spendings. We now describe the three most important instruments available to affect the money supply: open market operations, reserve requirements and the discount rate.

Open Market Operations. Операции на открытом рынке

Open market operations are the most important way of controlling the money supply. It refers to the Bank trading government bonds in the open market  – that is when they are bought from and sold to commercial banks and individuals.

When the Bank sells government bonds in the open market, the Bank withdraws the money from population and reduces the money supply.

When the Bank buys government bonds in the open market, it increases the amount of money in circulation and hence the money supply.

Reserve Requirements. Резервные требования

To understand the way a central bank can influence the money supply we should consider the creation of money by commercial banks and in this connection introduce the money multiplier.

Banks have to hold a proportion of their assets as a reserve in case customers demand repayment of their deposits. This required reserve has to be in a liquid form, that is easily convertible into cash. Many banks indeed hold a significant proportion of this reserve as notes and coin either in their vaults or at the central bank. A required reserve ratio (%) is a minimum ratio of cash reserves to deposits that the central bank requires commercial banks to hold. Commercial banks can hold more than the required cash reserves (this amount of money is called excess reserves and is used to create new money), but they cannot hold less. If their cash falls below the required amount, they must immediately borrow cash, usually from the central bank, to restore their required reserve ratio.

Commercial banks can make loans, i.e. they can create money and increase their excess reserves. Suppose somebody deposited $100 with bank A. If a required reserve ratio is 20%, the bank has $20 as required reserves and $80 as excess reserves, which can be lended. If a borrower draws a cheque for this whole sum and deposits it with bank B, then bank В gets $80 as its assets. Bank В is to hold 20% of this sum (that is $16) as required reserves. It means it has $64 of excess reserves, which it can lend to somebody. Tabl. 8 illustrates the process with banks C, D, E, etc. being involved.

Glossary

instruments of macroeconoinics  – макроэкономические инструменты

to control the money supply  – контролировать предложение денег

the exchange rate  – обменный (валютный) курс

the amount of investment  – размер капиталовложений

to adjust the amount of money in circulation  – корректировать количество денег в обращении

implementation of a nation's monetary policy  – осуществление, проведе­ние в жизнь национальной денежно-кредитной политики

to implement  – выполнять, осуществлять, обеспечивать выполнение

the Bank of England  – Банк Англии (Английский банк). The Bank of England is the UK's central bank. Established in 1694, it plays a key part in im­plementing the government's monetary policy. It ensures that interest rates are at the level desired by the government of the day and oversees the printing of notes and coin. It has wider responsibilities in managing the nation's debt and holding its reserves of foreign currency and gold. Thus, it holds responsibility for the country's monetary policy and its financial relations with other countries.

on behalf of  – от имени

reserve requirements  – резервные требования

a discount rate  – учетная ставка

the money multiplier  – денежный мультипликатор

required reserves  – требуемые резервные фонды

easily convertible into cash  – легко обратимый в наличные (напр., депо­зиты, ценные бумаги)

a required reserve ratio  – требуемая резервная норма

cash reserves  – кассовые резервы

excess reserves  – избыточные резервы

to draw (syn. to write out, to make out, to issue) a cheque  – выписать чек

created money  – созданные деньги

inversely proportional (ant. directly proportional)  – обратно пропорцио­нальный

to maintain  – поддерживать

to impose a reserve requirement  – налагать (вводить) резервное требование

fraction  – часть, доля

in excess of smth  – сверх чего-либо

prudent  – расчетливый, предусмотрительный

in force  – в силе

to charge  – назначать, начислять

to lend up to the hilt  – зд. продолжать предоставлять ссуды

up to the hilt  – полностью, целиком

drive their cash reserves down to...  – довести (снизить) свои кассовые резервы до...

if the worst comes to the worst  – если случится самое худшее

they are short of cash  – у них не хватит наличных денег

the penalty rate  – повышенная (штрафная) ставка

it is not worth making the extra loans  – не стоит предоставлять дополни­тельных займов

to induce smb to do smth (syn. to cause smb to do smth)  – заставить кого-то сделать что-то

voluntarily  – сознательно, осознанно

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  будущее неопределенное время?
2. Объясните способы образования  Future Simple.
3. По каким правилам  образуется вопросительная  и отрицательная  форма Future Simple.

Тема 13

Theme: Modal verbs

 The modal verbs are:

can (could), may (might), must, should, ought, shall, will, would, need, dare.

The modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have+ Infinitive also belong here. All the modal verbs have two negative forms — a full one and a contracted one:

should not — shouldn't

may not — mayn't

must not — mustn't

need not — needn't

dare not — daren't

The verb can has two forms:        can for the Present Tense and could for the Past Tense; the expression to be able and the verb to manage are used to supply the missing forms of the verb can.

"I can't explain it," said Therese. "I can't explain anything I did today"

He jumped as high as ever he could.

Can expresses ability or capability, possibility, incredulity or doubt, astonishment. Physical   or mental ability.

Cousin Val can't walk much, you know, but he can ride perfectly. He's going to show me the gallops. I don't know what Captain Loomis was doing there, but you can guess — it was about Thorpe.

Possibility, due to circumstances:

The video can be rented from your local store.

Can you come on Sunday?

You cannot play football in the street (i. e. you have no right).

Can and cannot (can't) are the most common words used for asking, giving or refusing permission.

          Can I borrow your calculator?

          You can come with us if you want to.

           You can't park your car here.

Can is also used when we offer to do things.

Can I get you a cup of coffee?

Can I help you, madam?

Note. Could is often used in polite requests.

Could you give us a consultation tomorrow, please?

 Could  is used to refer to the possibility of some future actions, especially when suggestions are being made.

When you go to London, you could stay with Pat.

The verb may has two forms: may for the Present Tense  and might for the Past Tense. The expressions to be allowed and to be permitted, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb may.

"May I come along?" asked Karen. Jolyon thought he might not have the chance of saying it after. May expresses permission, uncertainty, possibility, reproach.

1. Permission.

"May I use your phone?"

Students may not use the college car park.

Must not means that it is not the person who prohibits the action, but that there are facts, rules, or circumstances prohibiting it.

You must not smoke so much.

Might instead of may is often used because of the sequence of tenses.

That was like her — she had no foresight. Still — who knew? — she might be right. — Это похоже на нее — она не умела смотреть вперед. Все же — кто знает? — может быть, она и права.

The verb must has only one form. The expressions to have to and to be obliged to, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb must.

And now I must go back to my social duties.  I felt that I had to have the air.

Must expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or pro­hibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.

1.Obligation, necessity.

(a)due to circumstances (in this meaning it is equivalent to have to and is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences):

He must write. He must earn money. This education is indispensable for whatever career you select, and it must not be slipshod or sketchy.

The absence of necessity is expressed by need not:

Must I go there tomorrow?

Yes, you must. No, you needn't.

(b) arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable:

All experience tended to show that man must die.

1. A command, an urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition. In this meaning it is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

You must leave the room at once!

You must come to see me every vacation.

You must not speak to a prisoner in a foreign language, madam.

The negative forms must not (mustn’t 7) and don't have to are com­pletely different in their meanings. The former means that it is necessary   not to do something, while the latter means that there is no necessity to do something.

You mustn't tell anyone what I said.

I don't have to wear a suit to work but I usually do.

A less emphatic negation of must in this meaning may be achieved with needn't or don't have to (especially American English).

It must be hot now in Florida.

 It needn't be hot in Florida now.

 It doesn't have to be hot in Florida now.

The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are in­terchangeable.

I ought to have married; yes, I should have married long ago.

There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is always followed by the to-infinitive.

Should and ought are used with the Indefinite Infinitive, the Con­tinuous Infinitive and the Perfect Continuous Infinitive.

The government should do something about the economy.

You should be learning your lessons, Jack, and not talking with Mary.

It's murder, and we ought to stop it.

Can, Could

 1 Fill in the blanks with сап/can't or be (not) able to in the proper form.

1. He_1__speak English rather fluently, but that time he___say a word. 2. He has never___speak in public. 3.1 used to___speak German very well. 4. You ___marry her, but you___make her love you. 5.1___ do it on Friday, but I___do it next week. 6.___you give me a lift to the station, please? 7.1 used___eat a kilo of sweets for supper. 8.1 have never___ride a bicycle. 9. You___see him at the meeting. He was ill. 10. I'd like ___ski very well. 11. Luckily I___find a taxi. 12.1 ___drive when I was fifteen. 13.1___hear somebody running. 14. He did not want to go there, but we___to persuade him. 15. She sighed. I___feel her hands shaking.

2. Open the brackets with could (expressing a possibility) or could have (expressing a possibility that did not happen) and make all necessary changes.

1. A car is pulling up. It could (be) Lucy. 2. He could (get) a credit, but he did not prepare all the documents in time. 3. Why didn't you ask me? I could (do) it for you. 4, He could (be)  there tomorrow. 5. They could (be) there yesterday. 6. Why are you so depressed? He could (tell) alie. 7. You should have told us about your delay. We could (cancel) our meeting. 8. He could (do) it if he tries. 9. Somebody has called on you today. — It could (be) a friend of mine. 10.1 think he could (commit) a crime, but he's got an alibi. 11. The train arrives at 11.30. She could (come) at noon. 12. Yesterday I saw him driving at a very high speed. He could (crash).

 3 . Express your surprise and disbelief using can/could.

A in interrogative sentences.

Example: He is working now. — Can/Could he be working now?

1. He was at the party yesterday. 2. They are in Germany. 3. He has broken his leg. 4. They were sent to prison. 5. She got married. 6. He studies at Cambridge University. 7. She has been practicing the violin for five years. 8. He has made an interesting report. 9. He has won a lot of money in the casino. 10. They will go to the Canaries next summer. 11. He has passed his English exam. 12. She will be forty in June. 13. She is stubborn. 14. He was a cruel man.

В in negative sentences.

Example: He bought a new car.— He can't/ couldn't have bought a car.

You are mistaken. 2. They forgot about the meeting. 3. He is writing a new novel now. 4. She has bought a new fur coat. 5. He had an accident. 6. Mary will invite the Jones to her place for the weekend. 7. They upset our plans. 8. She wastes a lot of time. 9. Mr. Fox is a reliable person. 10. She is making a cruise now.

4.Translate into English.

I. He может быть, чтобы он был дома вчера в это время. 2. Неужели он сказал вам об этом? 3. Возмож­но, он и заходил к ним, когда был в Москве. 4. Он мог бы сделать это, но не захотел. 5. Неужели он отказался ехать туда? 7. Не может быть, чтобы они уехали, не попрощавшись с нами. 8. Не может быть, чтобы она вам так ответила. 9. Он мог бы приехать завтра. 10. Не может быть, что он столкнулся (collide) с другой машиной. Он такой осторожный водитель. 11. Вряд ли он забыл о своем обещании, я напоминала ему об этом вчера. 12. Он не мог прочитать эту книгу так быстро, она слишком трудна для него. 13. Они смогли бы подняться на вершину, но им помешала погода. 14. Вряд ли они поженятся; они слишком разные люди. 15. Разве мог кто-нибудь поду­мать, что он выиграет матч?

May, Might

 5. Paraphrase the following sentences using the verb may /might.

1.Under the law you are allowed to make one photocopy for your personal use but you can't make multiple copies. 2. This is possibly the reason why they have refused to join us. 3. Perhaps I will have to take her to hospital; it is possible she has broken her arm in the accident. 4. It is possible he did not have her phone number. 5. When the World Cup was shown on TV, I was allowed to stay up late and watch it. 6. Perhaps your friend will help you, but I don't believe it. 7. Maybe they did not know that the problem was so urgent. 8. Would you mind my smoking here? 9. Why didn't you come? I needed your help badly. 10. Perhaps she has made a mistake, but I am not sure of it. She is a very punctual person.

 6. Fill in the blanks with may /might or can/ could and make all necessary changes

1. You___(warn) me about it beforehand. 2. The weather is changing. It___(start) raining. 3. No, he___ (not hear) your name. We tried to speak in a whisper. 4. He___ (not hear) your name. That's why he did not say anything. 5. She ___ (not notice) us. We were standing too far away. 6. She___ (not notice) us though we were standing beside her. 7.___I uses your name as a referee? 8. She___ (not hear) the news, that's why she looks as if nothing had happened. 9. She___ (not hear)The news, nobody___tell her about it. 10. The professor says that I___(rewrite) the essay. 11.___I use your phone? 12. He___(help) them when they were in trouble. 13.___he (say) it? No, it's not like him. He is a man of few words.

                                   Text: Microeconomics and Macroeconomics

Many economists specialize in a particular branch of the subject. For example, there are labor economists, energy economists, monetary economists, and international economists. What distinguishes these economists is the segment of economic life in which they are interested. Labor economics deals with problems of the labor market as viewed by firms, workers, and society as a whole. Urban economics deals with city problems: land use, transport, congestion, and housing. However, we need not classify branches of economics according to the area of economic life in which we ask the standard questions what, how and for whom. We can also classify branches of economics according to the approach or methodology that is used. The very broad division of approaches into microeconomic and macroeconomic cuts across the large number of subject groupings cited above.

Microeconomic analysis offers a detailed treatment of individual decisions about particular commodities. For example, we might study why individual households prefer cars to bicycles and how producers decide whether to produce cars or bicycles. We can then aggregate the behavior of all households and all firms to discuss total car purchases and total car production. Within a market economy we can discuss the market for cars. Comparing this with the market for bicycles, we may be able to explain the relative output of these two goods. The sophisticated branch of microeconomics known as general equilibrium theory extends this approach to its logical conclusion. It studies simultaneously every market for every commodity. From this it is hoped that we can understand the complete pattern of consumption, production, and exchange in the whole economy at a point in time.

If you think this sounds very complicated you are correct. It is. For many purposes, the analysis becomes so complicated that we tend to lose track of the phenomena in which we were interested. The interesting task for economics, a task that retains an element of art in economic science, is to devise judicious simplifications, which keep the analysis manageable without distorting reality too much. It is here that macroeconomists and macroeconomists proceed down different avenues.

Macroeconomists tend to offer a detailed treatment of one aspect of economic behavior, but ignore interactions with the rest of the economy in order to preserve the simplicity of the analysis. A microeconomic analysis of miners' wages would emphasize the characteristics of miners and the ability of mine owners to pay. It would largely neglect the chain of indirect effects to which a rise in miners' wages might give rise. For example, car workers might use the precedent of the miners' pay increase to secure higher wages in the car industry, thus being able to afford larger houses, which burned more coal in heating systems. When microeconomic analysis ignores such indirectly induced effects it is said to be partial analysis.

In some instances, indirect effects may not be too important and it will make sense for economists to devote their effort to very detailed analyses of particular industries or activities. In other circumstances, the indirect effects are too important to be swept under the carpet and an alternative simplification must be found.

Macroeconomics emphasizes the interactions in the economy as a whole. It deliberately simplifies the individual building blocks of the analysis in order to retain a manageable analysis of the complete interaction of the economy.

For example, macroeconomists typically do not worry about the breakdown of consumer goods into cars, bicycles, televisions, and calculators. They prefer to treat them all as a single bundle called "consumer goods" because they are more interested in studying the interaction between households' purchases of consumer goods and firms' decisions about purchases of machinery and buildings.

Glossary

a labor economist  – специалист по экономике труда

an energy economist  – специалист по экономике (электро) энергии

a monetary economist  – специалист по монетарной экономике

an international economist  – специалист по мировой экономике

congestion  – перенаселенность

to cut across  – не соответствовать

a detailed treatment  – детальный, подробный анализ

an individual household  – отдельное домашнее хозяйство

to aggregate, v  – собирать в одно целое

aggregate, n  – совокупность

in the aggregate  – в совокупности

aggregate, adj  – совокупный

the relative output  – относительный объем производства

general equilibrium theory  – теория общего равновесия

to study simultaneously  – одновременно изучать

the complete pattern  – полная структура, система, схема

to lose track of the phenomena  – потерять след явлений

to devise judicious simplifications  – выработать разумные упрощения

to keep the analysis manageable  – позволять проводить анализ

to distort reality  – искажать реальность

to preserve the simplicity of the analysis  – сохранить простоту анализа

to neglect the chain of indirect effects  – пренебрегать косвенным воздей­ствием, совокупностью (цепочкой) косвенных результатов, эффектов

to secure higher wages  – получить более высокую заработную плату

indirectly induced effects  – воздействие, вызванное косвенными причинами

partial analysis  – частичный (неполный) анализ

to sweep under the carpet  – прятать, маскировать {доел. замести под ковер)

to simplify deliberately  – намеренно упрощать

to retain a manageable analysis  – сохранить возможность анализа (вы­полнимый, поддающийся выполнению анализ)

the breakdown of consumer goods  – классификация (подразделение) то­варов потребления

a single bundle  – отдельная единица, величина (доел. набор)

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  Modal verbs.
2. Объясните вопросительные  и отрицательные  формы модальных  глаголов.
3. Перечислите модальные глаголы   present and past tenses.

Тема 14

Theme: The Past Continuous

 The formation of the Past Continuous.

            The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the  verb.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

The Past Continuous is used to denote an action which was going on at a definite moment in the past.

It was twelve and he was still sitting, when the presence of Cowper wood was announced. The definite moment is indicated either by another past ac­tion expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

When I returned, she was sweeping the floor.

At midnight he was still working, though he was feeling ill and was longing to go to bed.

The definite moment is often not expressed, but understood from the situation.

He did not notice what was going on around him — he was reading.

The Past Continuous is used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment in the past.

He knew he was being scientific and restrained.

The Past Continuous or the Past Indefinite is often used after such phrases as the whole day, all day long.

They were working in the garden all day long. They worked in the garden all day long.

The Past Continuous is used to denote an action thought of as a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, ever; constantly are used. The Past Continuous in this use is often to be found in emotional speech.

She was constantly complaining of being lonely. 

He was never able to look after his flowers at all, for his friend, the Miller, was always coming round and sending him off on long errands or getting him to help on the mill.

When I came home, she was cooking dinner. — Когда я вер­нулся, она готовила обед.

1. What were you doing at the following times? Write one sentence as in the examples. The past continuous is not always necessary (see the second example).

  1. (at 8 o'clock yesterday evening)

  I was having dinner with some friends.

  2. (at 5 o'clock last Saturday)

  I was on a train on my way to London.

  3. (at 10.15 yesterday morning)   

  4. (at 4.30 this morning)

  5. (at 7.45 yesterday evening)

  6. (half an hour ago)

   2. Use your own ideas to complete these sentences. Use  the past continuous.

  1. Tom burnt his hand while he was cooking the dinner.

  2. The doorbell rang while I ---

  3. We saw an accident while we ---

  4. Mary fell asleep while she ---

  5. The television was on but nobody ---

   3. Put the verbs into the correct form, past continuous or past simple.

  1. I saw (see) Sue in town yesterday but she --- (look) the other way.

  2. I --- (meet) Tom and Ann at the airport a few weeks ago. They --- (go) to Berlin and I --- (go) to Madrid. We --- (have) a chat while we --- (wait) for our flights.

  3. I --- (cycle) home yesterday when suddenly a man --- (step) out into the road in front of me. I --- (go) quite fast but luckily I --- (manage) to stop in time and --- (not/hit) him.

Text: Market

The Role of Market (Роль рынка)

Reports in the press tend to say "the market did this" or "the market expected good news on the economic front", as if the market were a single living entity with a single conscious mind. This is not, of course, the case. To understand reports of market behaviour you have to bear in mind the way the market works.

A market is simply a mechanism, which allows individuals or organizations to trade with each other. Markets bring together buyers and sellers of goods and services. In some cases, such as a local fruit stall, buyers and sellers meet physically. In other cases, such as the stock market, business can be transacted over the telephone, almost by remote control. There's no need to go into these details. Instead, we use a general definition of markets.

A market is a shorthand expression for the process by which households' decisions about consumption of alternative goods, firms' decisions about what and how to produce, and workers' decisions about how much and for whom to work are all reconciled by adjustment of prices.

Prices of goods and of resources, such as labor, machinery and land, adjust to ensure that scarce resources are used to produce those goods and services that society demands.

Much of economics is devoted to the study of how markets and prices enable society to solve the problems of what, how and for whom to produce. Suppose you buy a hamburger for your lunch. What does this have to do with markets and prices? You chose the cafe because it was fast, convenient and cheap. Given your desire to eat, and your limited resources, the low hamburger price told you that this was a good way to satisfy your appetite. You probably prefer steak but that is more expensive. The price of steak is high enough to ensure that society answers the "for whom" question about lunchtime steaks in favor of someone

Else. Now think about the seller's viewpoint. The cafe owner is in business because, given the price of hamburger meat, the rent and the wages that must be paid, it is still possible to sell hamburgers at a profit. If rents were higher, it might be more profitable to sell hamburgers in a cheaper area or to switch to luxury lunches for rich executives on expense accounts. The student behind the counter is working there because it is a suitable part-time job, which pays a bit of money. If the wage were much lower it would hardly be worth working at all. Conversely, the job is unskilled and there are plenty of students looking for such work, so owners of cafes do not have to offer very high wages.

Prices are guiding your decision to buy a hamburger, the owner's decision to sell hamburgers, and the student's decision to take the job. Society is allocating resources  – meat, buildings, and labour  – into hamburger production through the price system. If nobody liked hamburgers, the owner could not sell enough at a price that covered the cost of running the cafe and society would devote no resources to hamburger production. People's desire to eat hamburgers guides resources into hamburger production. However, if cattle contracted a disease, thereby reducing the economy's ability to produce meat products, competition to purchase more scarce supplies of beef would bid up the price of beef, hamburger producers would be forced to raise prices, and consumers would buy more cheese sandwiches for lunch. Adjustments in prices would encourage society to reallocate resources to reflect the increased scarcity of cattle.

There were several markets involved in your purchase of a hamburger. You and the cafe owner were part of the market for lunches. The student behind the counter was part of the local labour market. The cafe owner was part of the local wholesale meat market and the local market for rented buildings. These descriptions of markets are not very precise. Were you part of the market for lunches, the market for prepared food or the market for sandwiches to which you would have turned if hamburgers had been more expensive? That is why we have adopted a very general definition of markets, which emphasizes that they are arrangements through, which prices influence the allocation of scarce resources.

Glossary

to bear in mind (syn. to keep in mind)  – иметь в виду

a local fruit stall  – фруктовый ларек

stock market  – фондовая биржа, рынок акций

to transact business (syn. to make a deal)  – совершать сделку

by remote control  – при помощи дистанционного управления

to go into details  – вдаваться в подробности

a general definition  – общее определение

a shorthand expression  – краткое, рабочее выражение (определение) households' decisions  – решения домохозяйств

to reconcile  – приводить в соответствие, согласовывать

by adjustment of prices  – посредством корректировки цен

to demand  – требовать

given (syn. taking into account, consideration)  – при условии, что..., учитывая limited resources  – ограниченные ресурсы

to satisfy one's appetite  – удовлетворять аппетит

to answer the question in favour of smb else  – решать вопрос в пользу кого-либо другого

the seller's viewpoint  – точка зрения продавца

the cafe owner  – владелец кафе

the rent  – арендная плата

to switch to luxury lunches  – переключиться на дорогие обеды

rich executives  – состоятельные служащие

behind the counter  – за прилавком

suitable  – подходящий

to suit  – подходить

part-time job (ant. full-time job)  – работа с неполной занятостью

a bit of money (ant. scads of money)  – немного денег

it would hardly be worth working at all  – вряд ли вообще имеет смысл работать

conversely (syn. on the opposite, on the contrary)  – наоборот, напротив

unskilled job  – неквалифицированная работа

to guide one's decision  – влиять на чье-либо решение

through the price system  – через систему цен

to cover the cost  – покрывать расходы

to run the cafe  – содержать кафе

to devote resources  – выделять ресурсы

to guide resources into hamburger production  – направить ресурсы на производство гамбургеров

cattle  – крупный рогатый скот

to contract a disease  – подхватить болезнь

thereby  – следовательно, таким образом

to reduce the economy's ability  – снижать возможности экономики

competition  – состязание, конкуренция

to purchase scarce supplies  – скупать дефицитные ресурсы

to reallocate resources  – перераспределять ресурсы

to reflect the scarcity  – отражать дефицит

to be involved in  – быть задействованным в

the local labour market  – локальный рынок труда

the local wholesale market  – локальный оптовый рынок

the local market for rented buildings  – локальный рынок аренды помещений

precise descriptions of markets  – точные описания рынков

to adopt a definition  – принять определение

to adopt a child in a family  – принять ребенка в семью, усыновить

to emphasize  – подчеркнуть, выделить

arrangements through, which prices influence smth  – структуры (механиз­мы), посредством которых цены влияют на что-либо

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  По каким правилам  образуется Past Continuous Tense?
2.  Правила  употребление Past Continuous Tense.
3. Объясните правила образования  вопросительной и отрицательной формы.

Тема 15

Theme: Participle

Причастие II (причастие прошедшего времени) все­гда пассивно. Образуется оно прибавлением суффикса -ed к основе правильного глагола или путем чередова­ния звуков в корне неправильного глагола.

Причастие II употребляется в функции:

1. Определения.

The book translated from English is very interesting.

Книга, переведенная с английского языка, интерес­ная.

2. Обстоятельства (причины и времени):

Given the task he began to work. — Когда ему дали задание, он начал работать.

If mailed, a bank transfer is known as a mail transfer. — Если банковский перевод отправляется почтой, он из­вестен как почтовый перевод.

Если перед причастием прошедшего времени в фун­кции обстоятельства стоят союзы if, when, то оно пере­водится на русский язык обстоятельственным прида­точным предложением. Если причастия настоящего и прошедшего времени стоят перед определяемыми существительными, то они, утрачивая свое отглагольное значение, выражают ка­чество и имеют значение к обычного прилагательного: a collecting bank - инкассирующий банк sold goods — проданный товар.

Если причастия настоящего и прошедшего времени стоят после определяемого существительного, то они, как правило, не выражают качества, а имеют лишь глагольное значение. При переводе такие причастия могут быть заменены определительным придаточным предложением.

all parties concerned — все заинтересованные сторо­ны (все стороны, которых это касается) instructions received — полученные инструкции (ин­струкции, которые были получены)

1.Переведите причастия

writing — written drawing — drawn accompanying — accompanied notifying — notified signing – signed

2.Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастные обороты:

1. We enclose the letter received yesterday requesting the details of the above transfer.
2. The letter mentioned above should be sent to us
3. The payment order referred to in your previous letter has been received by the customer.
4. We hope the amount transferred to your bank will be received.

Text : Money and Its Functions

The main feature of money is its acceptance as the means of payment or medium of exchange. Nevertheless, money has other functions. It is a standard of value, a unit of account, a store of value and a standard of deferred payment.

The Medium of Exchange

Money, the medium of exchange, is used in one-half of almost all exchange. Workers work for money. People buy and sell goods in exchange for money. We accept money not to consume it directly but because it can subsequently be used to buy things we wish to consume. Money is the medium through which people exchange goods and services. In barter economy there is no medium of exchange Goods are traded directly or swapped for other goods. In a barter economy, the seller and the buyer each must want something the other has to offer. Each person is simultaneously a seller and a buyer. There is a double coincidence of wants.

Trading is very expensive in a barter economy. People must spend a lot of time and effort finding others with whom they can make mutually satisfactory swaps. Since time and effort are scarce resources, a barter economy is waste fill.

Money is generally accepted in payment for goods, services, and debts and makes the trading process simpler and more efficient.

Other Functions of Money

Money can also serve as a standard of value. Society considers it convenient to use a monetary unit to determine relative costs of different goods and services. In this function money appears as the unit of account, is the unit in which prices are quoted and accounts are kept.

To be accepted in exchange, money has to be a store of value. Money is a store of value because it can be used to make purchases in the future.

Houses, stamp collections, and interest-bearing bank accounts all serve as stores of value. Since money pays no interest and its real purchasing power is eroded by inflation, there are almost certainly better ways to store value.

Finally, money serves as a standard of deferred payment or a unit of account over time. When you borrow, the amount to be repaid next year is measured in money value.

Different Kinds of Money

Golden coins are the examples of commodity money, because their gold content is a commodity. A token money is a means of payment whose value or purchasing power as money greatly exceeds its cost of production or value in uses other than as money.

A $10 note is worth far more as money than as a 3x6 inch piece of high-quality paper. Similarly, the monetary value of most coins exceeds the amount you would get by melting them down and selling off the metals they contain.

By collectively agreeing to use token money, society economizes on the scarce resources required to produce money as a medium of exchange. Since the manufacturing costs are tiny, why doesn’t everyone make $10 notes? The essential condition for the survival of token money is the restriction of the right to supply it. Private production is illegal.

Society enforces the use of token money by making it legal tender. The law says it must be accepted as a means of payment. In modem economies, token money is supplemented by IOU money. An  IOU money is a medium of exchange based on the debt of a private firm or individual. A bank deposit is IOU money because it is a debt of the bank. When you have a bank deposit the bank owes you money. You can write a cheque to yourself or a third party and the bank is obliged to pay whenever the cheque is presented. Bank deposits are a medium of exchange because they are generally accepted as payment.

Glossary

the means of payment- средство платежа

 medium of exchange- средство обращения

a standard of value- мера стоимости

a unit of account- единица учета

a store of value -средство сбережения (сохранения стоимости)

a standard of deferred -payment средство погашения долга

subsequently- впоследствии

 a barter economy- бартерная экономика

to swap (to exchange, to barter) -обменивать, ме-нять

to hand over in exchange -передать, вручить в обмен

a double coincidence of wants -двойное совпадение потребностей

 a monetary unit - денежная единица

to remind of- напоминать

 to be worthless- обесцениваться

an interest-bearing bank account- счет в банке с вы¬платой процентов

to pay interest -приносить процентный доход

 to erode- зд. фактически уменьшаться

hard currency -твердая (конвертируемая) валюта

 soft currency -неконвертируемая валюта

invariably -неизменно, постоянно

token money- символические деньги (дензнаки, жетоны, и т.п.)

to melt down- расплавить

tiny costs -мизерные затраты

 to supplement- дополнять

legal tender -законное платежное средство

IOU money (I Owe You-я вам должен) деньги — долговое обязательство a bank deposit -вклад в банке

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Приведите  примеры  употребляя Participle 2.
2.  Особенности образования причастия прошедшего времени.
3. Значение  роли  перевода предложений с Participle.

Тема 16

Тема 17

Theme:  Much, many, little, few, a lot, plenty

    A. We use much and little with uncountable nouns:

  much time  much luck  little energy  little money

  We use many and few with plural nouns:

  many friends  many people  few cars  few countries

B. We use a lot of/lots of/plenty of with uncountable and plural nouns:

  a lot of luck  lots of time  plenty of money  a lot of friends  lots of people  plenty of ideas

  Plenty = more than enough:

  * There's no need to hurry. We've got plenty of time.

  * I've had plenty to eat. I don't want any more.

C. We use much/many especially in negative sentences and questions. A lot (of) is also possible:

  * We didn't spend much money. (or We didn't spend a lot of money.)

  * Do you know many people? (or Do you know a lot of people?)

  * I don't go out much. (or I don't go out a lot.)

  In positive sentences a lot (of) is more usual. Much is unusual in positive sentences in spoken English:

  * We spent a lot of money. (not 'We spent much money')

  * He goes out a lot. (not 'He goes out much')

  You can use many in positive sentences, but a lot (of) is more usual in spoken English:

  * A lot of people (or Many people) drive too fast.

  But note that we use too much and so much in positive sentences:

  * We spent too much money.

    D. Little and few (without 'a') are negative ideas (= not much/not many):

  * We must be quick. There is little time. (= not much, not enough time)

  * He isn't popular. He has few friends. (= not many, not enough friends) You can say very little and very few:

  * There is very little time.

  * He has very few friends.

 A little and a few are more positive. A little = some, a small amount:

  * Let's go and have a drink. We've got a little time before the train leaves. (a little time = some time, enough time to have a drink)

  * 'Do you speak English?' 'A little.' (so we can talk a bit)

  A few = some, a small number:

  * I enjoy my life here. I have a few friends and we meet quite often. (a few friends = not many but enough to have a good time)

  * 'When did you last see Clare?' 'A few days ago.' (= some days ago)

  Compare:

  * He spoke little English, so it was difficult to communicate with him.

  He spoke a little English, so we were able to communicate with him.

  * She's lucky. She has few problems. (= not many problems)

  Things are not going so well for her. She has a few problems. (= some problems)

  Note that 'only a little' and 'only a few' have a negative meaning:

  * We must be quick. We've only got a little time.

  * The village was very small. There were only a few houses.

1. In some of these sentences much is incorrect or unnatural. Change much to many or a lot (of) where necessary

  1. We didn't spend much money. _RIGHT_

  2. Sue drinks much tea. _a lot of tea_

  3. Jim always puts much salt on his food.

  4. We'll have to hurry. We haven't got much time.

  5. Did it cost much to repair the car?

  6. It cost much to repair the car.

  7. I don't know much people in this town.

  8. I use the phone much at work.

  9. They've got so much money they don't know what to do with it.

  2 . Complete the sentences using plenty (of) + one of the following:

  hotels  money  room  time to learn  things to see

  1. There's no need to hurry. _We're got of time._

  2. He's got no financial problems. He's got ---.

  3. Come and sit with us. There's ---.

  4. She knows a lot but she still has ---.

5. It's an interesting town to visit. There ---.

  6. I'm sure we'll find somewhere to stay ---.

  3. Put in much, many, few or little.

  1. He isn't very popular. He has _few_ friends.

  2. Ann is very busy these days. She has --- free time.

  3. Did you take --- photographs when you were on holiday?

  4. I'm not very busy today. I haven't got --- to do.

  5. The museum was very crowded. There were too --- people.

  6. Most of the town is modern. There are --- old buildings.

  7. The weather has been very dry recently. We've had --- rain.

  4. Some of these sentences need a. Put in a where necessary. Put 'RIGHT' if the sentence is already complete.

  1. She's lucky. She has _few problems._ _RIGHT_

  2. Things are not going so well for her. She has _few problems._ _a few problems_

  3. Can you lend me _few dollars?_

  4. I can't give you a decision yet. I need _little time_ to think.

  5. There was _little traffic_, so the journey didn't take very long.

  6. It was a surprise that he won the match. _Few people_ expected him to win.

  7. I don't know much Spanish--_only few words._

  5 . Put in little/a little/few/a few.

  1. We must be quick. We have _little_ time.

  2. Listen carefully. I'm going to give you --- advice.

  3. Do you mind if I ask you --- questions?

  4. This town is not a very interesting place to visit, so --- tourists come here.

  5. I don't think Jill would be a good teacher. She's got --- patience.

  6. 'Would you like milk in your coffee?' 'Yes, please ---.'

  7. This is a very boring place to live. There's --- to do.

  8. 'Have you ever been to Paris?' 'Yes, I've been there --- times.

 Text:  The Money Market

The money market comprises the demand for money and the money supply. The equilibrium in the money market is such a state of balance when the demand for money from households and businesses is satisfied by the quantity of the money supplied. The equilibrium in the money market is reached by changing bond prices.

People can hold their wealth in various forms — money, bonds, equities, and property. For simplicity we assume that there are only two assets: money, the medium of exchange that pays no interest, and bonds, which we use to stand for all other interest-bearing assets that are not directly a means of payment. As people earn income, they ad to their wealth. As they spend, they deplete their wealth. How should people divide their wealth at any instant between money and bonds to gain the best profits possible and not to incur losses?

There is an obvious cost of holding money. The opportunity cost of holding money is the interest one would have gained if he (she) had held bonds. It naturally follows that people will hold money rather than bonds only if there is a benefit to offset this cost, only if holding money is more profitable than holding bonds. It may happen only when interest rates on bonds are too low to make it profitable to hold bonds.

Suppose the money market is in equilibrium when the interest rate on interest-bearing assets (e.g. Treasury bills and other securities) is 6% and the amount of money demanded is $200 mm. Now suppose the interest rate goes down, say, to 4%. In this case interest-bearing assets are no longer profitable as they can't earn a sufficient return.

Hence the demand for money will rise and will lead to a temporary lack of money in the money market. If they lack money, households and businesses are likely to sell bonds they possess for cash. That will cause an increase in the bond supply, which lowers bond prices and rises interest rates on interest-bearing assets. With a higher interest rate the amount of money people are willing to have in hand will decrease again. Consequently, the money supply will adjust to a current demand to reflect a new higher interest rate.

Conversely, the increase in the money supply creates its temporary surplus, which results in the demand for bonds and bond prices going up. The interest rate falls thus restoring balance in the money market, but at a new lower interest rate.

Glossary

equities (syn. ordinary shares, equity shares, ordinary stocks)  –

обыкно­венные акции

to deplete  – истощать, исчерпывать obvious  – очевидный

to offset  – возмещать

Treasury bills  – казначейские векселя

consequently  – следовательно, поэтому

conversely  – наоборот

temporary surplus  – временный избыток, излишек

 Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Способы образования  отрицательных предложений с  использованием  much  and  many ?
2. Объясните,  какая  разница  между  How many and How  much?
3. Приведите,  примеры    употребляя  little, few, plenty of.

Тема 18

Theme: The present perfect continuous

A   Introduction

We use the present perfect continuous for an action (waiting). The action happens over a period of time (for twenty minutes). Here the period lasts up to the present - they are still waiting now.

B   Form

The present perfect continuous is the present tense of have + been + an ing-form.

I/you/we/they have been waiting

I/you/we/they've been waiting he/she/it has been waiting

 he/she/it's been waiting

NEGATIVE                                                  QUESTION

I/you/we/they haven't been waiting              have I/you/we/they been waiting?

he/she/it hasn't been waiting                             has he/she/it been waiting?

We've been standing here for ages.                            It has been raining all day.

Have you been waiting long?                                    Our team hasn't been doing very well lately.

C   Use

We use the present perfect continuous for an action over a period of time leading up to the present . In these examples the action is still going on.

We've been waiting here for twenty minutes. (We're waiting now.)

Listen. That burglar alarm has been ringing since eight o'clock this morning. We must use the perfect in these situations.

NOT We wait here for twenty minutes OR We're waiting-here for twenty-minutes.

We can use the present perfect continuous to talk about repeated actions up to now.

Natasha has been playing the piano since she was four. We can also use it to talk about an action which ends just before the present.

I've been swimming. That's why my hair is wet.

D   For, since, how long and recently

We can use the present perfect continuous with for and since (see Unit 121).

My sister has been staying with me for three weeks now.

You've been playing on that computer since seven o'clock. We use how long in questions.

How long have you been waiting?

Note also recently and lately. These both mean 'in the last few days or weeks'. I haven't been feeling very well recently.    What have you been doing lately?

1. Put in the verbs. Use the present perfect continuous.

Ilona:     Sorry I'm late.

Emma:   It's OK.  / haven't been waiting (I / not / wait) long.

What(l)…………………………………..    (you/do)?

Ilona:     I've been with Mrs King. (2)                       (she / help) me with my English.

Emma:   Your English is very good. You don't need lessons, surely.

How long (3)  (you / study) English?

Ilona:     Er, eight years now. But my accent wasn't so good before I came to England.(4)          (I / try) to improve it. I think (5)       (it / get) better lately.

Emma:   Your accent is fine, Ilona. Honestly.

2. Say what these people have been doing.

 Use these verbs: argue, cook, drive, wait, work

            Andrew is tired because he's been working all day.

1          Trevor and Laura are upset because  ………………………………………….

2          David is hot because  …………….

3          Mark feels very stiff because             ……………..  all day.

4          Henry is annoyed           a long time for Claire.

3. What could you say in these situations? Write sentences with the present perfect continuous and a phrase with for.

Use these verbs: play, read, swim, talk, travel, work

A video is on. It began two hours ago, and it hasn't finished yet.

The video has been playing for two hours.

1          Matthew went into the water an hour ago. He doesn't want to come out yet.

2          Your friends started their journey around the world three months ago. They've gone about halfway now.

3          Mark got to the office early this morning. Ten hours later he's still there.

4          Melanie rang Rita forty minutes ago, and they're still on the phone.

5          Trevor has got an interesting book. He started it quite a long time ago. Ask him how long.

Text: Organizational structure

Every organization made up of more than one person will need some form of organizational structure. The way in which a company is organized can be illustrated for a packaging company. The company will be owned by shareholders that choose directors to look after their interests. The directors then appoint managers to run the business on a day-to-day basis. The Managing Director has the major responsibility for running of the company, including setting company targets and keeping an eye on all departments.

The Distribution Manager is responsible for controlling the movement of goods in and out of the warehouse, supervising drivers and overseeing the transport of goods to and from the firm.

The Production Manager is responsible for keeping a continuous supply of work flowing to all production staff and also for organizing manpower to meet the customers' orders.

The Sales Manager is responsible for making contact with customers and obtaining orders from those contacts. The Company Accountant controls all the financial dealings of the company and is responsible for producing management accounts and financial reports.
Other organizations will have different structures. For example most organizations will have a marketing department responsible for market research and marketing planning. A customer services department will look after customer requirements. A human resources department will be responsible for recruitment and selection of new employees, employee motivation and a range of other people focused activities. In addition there will be a number of cross-functional areas such as administration and Information Technology departments that service the functional areas of the company. These departments will provide back up support and training.

Organizations are structured in different ways:

1. by function as described above,

2. By regional area - a geographical structure e.g. with a marketing
manager North, marketing manager South etc.

3. By product e.g. marketing manager crisps, marketing manager drinks, etc.

4. into work teams, etc.

Reporting in organizations often takes place down the line. An employee might be accountable to a supervisor, who is accountable to a junior manager, who is then accountable to a senior manager - communication and instructions can then be passed down the line.

Соотнесите слова и их определения.

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает present perfect continuous?
2. Объясните способы образования  present perfect continuous .

3.По каким правилам  образуется вопросительная  и отрицательная  форма present perfect continuous .

Тема 19

Тема 20

 Theme: Present Perfect or Past   Simple

We use the present perfect for a state which has gone on up to the present. (David is still in hospital.) We've lived here for ten years. (And we still live here.)

past simple

We use the past simple for a state in the past, in a period which is finished. (David's stay in hospital is over.)We lived there for ten years. (We don't live there now.)

 B   Have you (ever)...? and Did you (ever)...?

present perfect

We use the present perfect for actions in a period of time up to the present.

This young director has made four films so far. He has made films means that it is possible he will make more films.

Here are some more examples.  Have you ever been to America? ~ Yes, twice. I've played table tennis before. We've never had any money.

C   Today, this week, etc We use today and phrases with this for a period up to the present. It hasn't rained today. Have you seen this week's magazine?

past simple

We use the past simple for actions in the past, a period which is finished.

The director made many films in his long career. He made films means that his career in films is over. He won't make any more. Did Churchill ever go to America? ~ Yes, I think so. I played table tennis at college. We never had any money in those days.

We use yesterday and phrases with last for a past period. It rained yesterday. Did you see last week's magazine? But sometimes today etc can mean a past period. Compare:

/ haven't  seen Rachel today. I didn't see Sarah at work today.

(It's still day time.)     (The working day is over.)Has the post come this morning? Did the post come this morning? (It's still morning.)      (It's later in the day.)

1. I've been or I was? Complete this letter to a newspaper. Put in the present perfect or past simple.

A few days ago I  learned (learn) that someone plans to knock down the White Horse Inn.

 This pub (VJ has been (be) the centre of village life for centuries. It (1)……………………………       (stand)at our crossroads for 500 years. It (2)…………………………… (be) famous in the old days, and Shakespeare once (3)…………………………….         (stay)there, they say. I (4)…………………………..           (live) in Brickfield all my life. The villagers (5)………………………………(know) about the plans for less than a week and already there's a 'Save Our Pub' campaign. Last week we (6)……………………………  (be)happy, but this week we're angry. We will stop them, you'll see.

2. Have you (ever)...? and Did you (ever)...?

            Have you heard about the woman walking across the US? ~ Yes, she's reached the Rockies.

a) The walk is continuing,    b)  The walk has finished.

1 Have you ever played beach volleyball? ~ Yes, we played it on holiday.

a)  The holiday is still going on.    b) The holiday is over.

2 Did you know old Mr Green? ~ No, I never met him.

a)  Mr Green is probably alive,    b)  Mr Green is probably dead.

3 Wayne Johnson is a great footballer. ~ Yes, he's scored 200 goals for United.

a)  Wayne Johnson still plays for United,    b) Wayne Johnson has left United.

3. Present perfect or past simple? Put in the verbs.

Tom:       Have you heard (you / hear) the news about David?

Harriet:   No. (1)         (what / happen)?

Tom:      (2)………..   (he / have) an accident. He was walking down some steps.  (3)………………………………            (he / fall) and (4)……………………………..         (break) his leg.

Harriet:  Oh, how awful! When (5)   (it / happen)?

Tom:      Yesterday afternoon. Melanie (6)………………………………..            (tell) me about it last night.

Harriet:   Last night! (7)……………………………..          (you / know) about it last night, and(8)……………………          (you / not / tell) me!

Tom:      Well, (9)       (I / not / see) you last night. And (10)           (I / not / see) you today, until now.

Harriet:  I hope he's all right. (11)       (he / have) lots of accidents, you know.

(12)                 (he / do) the same thing about two years ago.

4. Put in the past participles of the verbs in brackets.

We've found (find) all the answers.

1          Have you……………………….      (wash) the car?

2          You haven't                    (eat) very much.

3          They've…………………..                (open) a new supermarket.

4          You've……………………………   (write) it in pencil.

5          I've………………………                 (make) the sandwiches.

6          We've…………..                   (have) our lunch.

7          United have…………………..                         (score) a goal.

8          The balloon has………………                      (land) in a field.

9          Who's…………………………..       (break) this glass?

10        It's warm because the heating has        (be) on.

11        Have you        (sell) your flat yet?

12        I've……………………………         (finish) that job at last.

 Text: Market failure

Pollution can be a simple example of market failure. If costs of production are not borne by producers but are by the environment, accident victims or others, then prices are distorted.

The term "market failure" encompasses several problems which may undermine standard economic assumptions. Although economists categorise market failures differently, the following categories emerge in the main texts.

Natural monopoly, or the overlapping concepts of "practical" and "technical" monopoly, is an extreme case of failure of competition as a restraint on producers. The problem is described as one where the more of a product is made, the greater the unit costs are. This means it only makes economic sense to have one producer.

Information asymmetries arise where one party has more or better information than the other. The existence of information asymmetry gives rise to problems such as moral hazard, and adverse selection, studied in contract theory. The economics of information has relevance in many fields, including finance, insurance, contract law, and decision-making under risk and uncertainty.

Incomplete markets is a term used for a situation where buyers and sellers do not know enough about each other's positions to price goods and services properly. Based on George Akerlof's article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second hand car market. Customers without the possibility to know for certain whether they are buying a "lemon" will push the average price down below what a good quality second hand car would be. In this way, prices may not reflect true values. Public goods are goods which are undersupplied in a typical market. The defining features are that people can consume public goods without having to pay for them and that more than one person can consume the good at the same time.

Externalities occur where there are significant social costs or benefits from production or consumption that are not reflected in market prices. For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.). Governments often tax and otherwise restrict the sale of goods that have negative externalities and subsidize or otherwise promote the purchase of goods that have positive externalities in an effort to correct the price distortions caused by these externalities. Elementary demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment for changes of equilibrium due to a shift in demand or supply.

In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side. This includes standard analysis of the business cycle in macroeconomics. Analysis often revolves around causes of such price stickiness and their implications for reaching a hypothesized long-run equilibrium. Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.

Macroeconomic instability, addressed below, is a prime source of market failure, whereby a general loss of business confidence or external shock can grind production and distribution to a halt, undermining ordinary markets that are otherwise sound.

Some specialised fields of economics deal in market failure more than others. The economics of the public sector is one example, since where markets fail, some kind of regulatory or government programme is the remedy. Much environmental economics concerns externalities or "public bads".Policy options include regulations that reflect cost-benefit analysis or market solutions that change incentives, such as emission fees or redefinition of property rights.

5. Соотнесите слова и их определения.

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  past perfect?
2. Объясните способы образования  past simple.
3. Значение роли past perfect  и   past  simple  в предложениях  русского языка

Тема 21

 Theme: Be going to

A   Intentions

We use be going to  talk about something we have decided to do (an intention). David intends to climb up the ladder.

Here are some more examples.

I'm going to watch the next programme.

 Emma is going to do an experiment this afternoon.

 Rachel and Vicky are going to spend six weeks in the State: We can use I'm not going to for a refusal. I'm sorry, but I'm not going to walk half a mile in the ram.

( I don't want to/I'm not willing to walk.)

The present continuous can have a very similar meaning to be going to. We can often use either form

I'm going to visit my friend at the weekend.

I'm visiting my friend at the weekend. We do not use will here.

We can use be going to with the verb go (We're going to go out this evening), but the present continuous is more usual. We're going out this evening.

B   Form

We use the present tense of be + going to + a verb.

They're going to move house.    Matthew is going to play squash.

Vicky isn't going to have any lunch.    We aren't going to complain.

Is Daniel going to apply for the job?  / think he is.

When are you going to pay this bill?  I don't know. I can't at the moment.

We also use be going to for a prediction based on the present situation, when we can see that something is going to happen. The ladder is moving, so David is going to fall.

Here are some more examples.

My sister is going to have a baby in March.

 It's nearly nine now. We're going to be late.

Do you think it's going to rain?

1. Put in the verbs with be going to.

Laura:    What are you doing with that camera?

Trevor:    I'm going to take (I / take) it to work. (1)………………………(I / lend) it to Phil.(2)                (he / take) a few photos with it.

Laura:    Why can't he buy his own camera?

Trevor:    He's got one, but it isn't working properly. (3………       (it / be) a while before he can get it repaired.

Laura:    Well, how long (4)   ……………    (he / keep) ours? When

(5)……………………………………….     (we / get) it back?

Trevor:    (6)………………………………………. (he / have) it over the weekend. (7)               (we / get) it back on Monday.

Laura:     Well, I hope (8)………………                  (it / not / get) damaged.

2. What would you say in these situations? Use these words: be sick, crash, get wet, lose, not stop, rain

            The sky is full of dark clouds.

1          Now it's starting to rain. There's nowhere to shelter, and you haven't got an umbrella.

2          You feel awful. There's a terrible feeling in your stomach.

3          You are playing Scrabble. The game is nearly over and you are 100 points behind.

4          You can see a plane coming down. It's out of control and falling to the ground.

5          You are waiting for a train. There's one coming, but you don't know if it's the one you want.

 Text: Budget

The process of calculating the costs of starting a small business begins with a list of all necessary purchases including tangible assets (for example, equipment, inventory) and services (for example, remodeling, insurance), working capital, sources and collateral. The budget should contain a narrative explaining how you decided on the amount of this reserve and a description of the expected financial results of business activities. The assets should be valued with each and every cost. All other expenses are like labour factory overhead all freshmen expenses are also included into business budgeting.

The budget of a company is often compiled annually, but may not be. A finished budget, usually requiring considerable effort, is a plan for the short-term future, typically one year. While traditionally the Finance department compiles the company's budget, modern software allows hundreds or even thousands of people in various departments (operations, human resources, IT, etc.) to list their expected revenues and expenses in the final budget.

If the actual figures delivered through the budget period come close to the budget, this suggests that the managers understand their business and have been successfully driving it in the intended direction. On the other hand, if the figures diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an 'out of control' signal, and the share price could suffer as a result.

A budget is a fundamental tool for an event director to predict with reasonable accuracy whether the event will result in a profit, a loss or will break-even. A budget can also be used as a pricing tool.

There are two basic approaches or philosophies when it comes to budgeting. One approach focuses on mathematical models, and the other on people.

The first school of thought believes that financial models, if properly constructed, can be used to predict the future. The focus is on variables, inputs and outputs, drivers and the like. Investments of time and money are devoted to perfecting these models, which are typically held in some type of financial spreadsheet application.

The other school of thought holds that it’s not about models, it’s about people. No matter how sophisticated models can get, the best information comes from the people in the business. The focus is therefore in engaging the managers in the business more fully in the budget process, and building accountability for the results. The companies that adhere to this approach have their managers develop their own budgets. While many companies would say that they do both, in reality the investment of time and money falls squarely in one approach or the other.

3. Соотнесите слова и их определения.

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  Going to?
2. Объясните способы образования  going to.
3. Значение роли going to в предложениях  русского языка.

Тема 22

Theme: Will and be going to

A   Introduction

Emma: It's my birthday soon. I'll be twenty next Friday.

Aunt Joan:     Oh, really? Are you going to have a party?

Emma: I'm going to have a meal in a restaurant with a few friends.

Aunt Joan:     That'll be nice.

WILL

Will has a neutral meaning. We use it to talk about facts in the future.

I'll be twenty next Friday.

The spacecraft will come down in the Pacific Ocean tomorrow morning.

BE GOING TO

We use be going to for an intention, something we have already decided to do.

We're going to have a meal.

Tom is going to sell his car.

Will does not express an intention.

It's her birthday. She's going to have a meal with her friends, NOT She'll have a meal. But we often use be going to for an intention and will for the details and comments. We're all going to have a meal. There'll be about ten of us. ~ Oh, that'll be nice.

As well as be going to, we can use the present continuous

We're going to drive/We're driving down to the South of France. ~ That'll be a long journey. take two days. We'll arrive on Sunday.

B   Decisions and intentions

WILL

We use will for an instant decision or agreement to do something.

There's a postbox over there. I'll post these letters.

You still haven't put those shelves up, Trevor. ~

OK, I'll do it tomorrow. Trevor is deciding now.

BE GOING TO

Be going to means that we have already decided.

I'm going out. I'm going to post these letters. You still haven't put those shelves up, Trevor. ~ I

know. I'm going to do it tomorrow. Trevor has already decided.

    Predictions   -WILL

We can use will for a prediction about the future.

I think United will win the game. One day people will travel to Mars.

 BE GOING TO

We use be going to for a prediction when we see from the present situation what is going to happen in the future.

There isn't a cloud in the sky. lt's going to be a lovely day.

This bag isn't very strong. It's going to break.

It is often possible to use either form in a prediction. For example, we can also say I think United are going to win the game. Usually be going to is a little more informal and conversational than will.

1. Complete the conversations. Put in will or be going to with the verbs.

Vicky: Have you got a ticket for the play?

Daniel:            Yes, I'm going to see (see) it on Thursday.

Harriet:           The alarm's going. It's making an awful noise.

Mike:   OK, I'll switch (switch) it off.

Daniel:            Did you buy this book?

Matthew:        No, Emma did. She………………………………………  (read) it on holiday.

Laura:  Would you like tea or coffee?

Sarah:  Oh, I…………..         (have) coffee, please.

Trevor:            I'm going to miss a good film on TV because I'll be out tonight.

Laura:  I          (video) it for you, if you like.

Rachel:            I'm just going out to get a paper.

Emma: What newspaper         ……….           (you / buy)?

2 .What would you say? Use will or be going to.

 You want to express your intention to look round the museum.

Your friend:    Do you have any plans for this afternoon?

You:    Yes, I'm going to look round the museum.

You hate dogs. Dogs always attack you if they get the chance.

Your friend:    That dog doesn't look very friendly.

You:    It's coming towards us.You predict the landing of aliens on the earth in the next ten years.

Your friend:    All this talk about aliens is complete nonsense, isn't it?

You:    Is it? I think   You know that your friend's sister has decided to get married.

Your friend:    Have you heard about my sister?

You:    Well, I heard that  You suddenly decide you want to invite Ilona for a meal.

Your friend:    Did you know Ilona will be in town next weekend?

You:    No, I didn't.

2. Complete the news report about the village of Brickfield. Use will or be going to.

We have learned this week that the local council has plans for Westside Park in Brickfield.

The council  is going to sell (sell) the land to a builder, Forbes and Son. The plans are all ready. (1)………………………       (we / build) fifty houses,' said Mr Forbes. 'In two years' time everything (2)………………………………………………..    (be) finished. I'm sure people (3)…………………………………..            (like) the houses. Most of them (4)………………………………   (be) for young families. And we intend to take care of the environment. (5)……………………………………       (we / not / cut) down all the trees, only a few of them. But people living near the park are angry. 'This is a terrible idea. We're all against it,' said Mrs Mary Brent.(6)……………………………………. (we / have) a protest march on Saturday. I expect everyone in Brickfield(7)………………                       (be) there. We've reached our decision. (8)………………………………..(we / stop) this plan.

Text: Price

In ordinary usage, price is the quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods or services.

In all modern economies, the overwhelming majority of prices are quoted in (and the transactions involve) units of some form of currency. Although in theory, prices could be quoted as quantities of other goods or services this sort of barter exchange is rarely seen.

Price can sometimes alternatively refer to the quantity of payment requested by a seller of goods or services, rather than the eventual payment amount. This requested amount is often called the asking price or selling price, while the actual payment may be called the transaction price or traded price. Likewise, the bid price or buying price is the quantity of payment offered by a buyer of goods or services, although this meaning is more common in asset or financial markets than in consumer markets.

Economists sometimes define price in a more general or abstract sense to the widely understood definition above. According to this view, price is defined as the ratio between the quantity of goods that are exchanged for each other in a transaction.

For example, consider the case of two people exchanging goods, say 5 apples for 2 loaves of bread. An economist might say that the price of apples was 2/5 = 0.4 loaves of bread. Likewise, the price of bread would be 5/2 = 2.5 apples. Hence if we consider that currency is simply another type of good like apples or bread, then this conception forms the general case of the widely held definition outlined above.

However it is far from clear that this generalisation serves any useful purpose at all. As noted above, in all real economies prices are virtually always quoted in (and transactions always involve) units of currency. Hence, an alternative view is that the most basic and general definition of price is that involving exchange of goods or services for money, and that the exchange ratio between two goods is simply derived from the two individual prices.

The exchange ratio is sometimes referred to as the real price, while the price quoted in money referred to as the nominal price.

This distinction is sometimes made to make sense of inflation. When all prices are quoted in terms of money units, and the prices in money units change more or less proportionately, the ratio of exchange may not change much. In the extreme case, if all prices quoted in money change in the same proportion, the relative price remains the same.

It is now becoming clear that the distinction is not useful and indeed hides a major confusion. The conventional wisdom is that proportional change in all nominal prices does not affect real price, and hence should not affect either demand or supply and therefore also should not affect output. The new criticism is that the crucial question is why is there more money to pay for the same old real output. If this question is answered, it will show that dynamically, even as the real price remains exactly the same, output in real terms can change, just because additional money allow additional output to be traded. The supply curve can shift such that at the old price, the new higher output is sold. This shift if not possible without additional money.

Соотнесите слова и их определения.

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  will?
2. Объясните способы образования  be going to.
3. Особенности перевода will u  be  going  to в предложениях  русского языка.

Тема 23

Lesson 23

Theme: Interesting and interested

interesting

The book is full of information. It's very interesting.

The word interesting tells us what the book does to Mike — it interests him. A book can be interesting, boring, exciting or amusing, for example.

B   Adjective pairs

Here are some more examples.

 interested

Mike is very interested in UFOs.

The word interested tells us how Mike feels. A person can feel interested, bored, excited or amused, for example.

+ing

Tom told us an amusing story.

The two-hour delay was annoying.

 I didn't enjoy the party. It was boring.

This computer has some very confusing instructions.

This wet weather is so depressing.

 It was very disappointing not to get the job.

 The game was really exciting.

 Going for a jog with Matthew is exhausting.

I thought the programme on wildlife was fascinating.

For one frightening/terrifying moment I thought I was going to fall.

 I just don't understand. I find the whole thing rather puzzling

. Lying in a hot bath is relaxing.

I think the way Jessica behaved was quite shocking.

The test results were surprising.

What thrilling news this is! Congratulations!

The journey took all day and night.

They found it very tiring.

+ED

We were amused at Tom's story.

The passengers were annoyed about the delay.

I went to the party, but I felt bored.

I got very confused trying to make sense of the instructions.

This weather makes me so depressed.

 I was very disappointed not to get the job.

The United fans were excited.

I'm exhausted after jogging all that way.

I watched the programme on wildlife.

I was absolutely fascinated.

 When I got onto the roof I felt frightened /terrified.

I must say I'm puzzled. I just don't understand

I feel relaxed when I lie in a hot bath.

I was quite shocked to see Jessica behaving like that.

I was surprised at the test results. We were thrilled to hear your good news. After travelling all day and night they were very tired.

1. Interesting and interested .What are they saying? Put in these words: depressing, exciting, exhausted, fascinating, interested

            This is a depressing place.

1          I'm absolutely   ……………………....         3      Chess is a            ………………..         game.

2          I'm   …………………... in astronomy.         4      This is really.……………………....!

2. Interesting and interested . Complete the conversation. Write the complete word in each space.

Vicky:    That was an exciting (excit...) film, wasn't it?

Rachel:   Oh, do you think so? I'm (1) ………………..(surpris...) you liked it.I thought it was rather (2)               (disappoint...).

Vicky:    Well, I was (3)…………………………..(puzzl...) once or twice. I didn't understand the whole story.

It was (4)…………………………..(confus...) in places. But the end was good.

Rachel:   I was (5)……………………………         (bor...) most of the time. I didn't find it very (6)      (interest...).

3. Complete the conversations using a word ending in ing or ed.

David:       I'm surprised how warm it is for March.

Melanie:     Yes, all this sunshine is quite surprising.

Vicky:        I'm not very fit. I was pretty tired after climbing the mountain.

Natasha:     Yes, I think everyone felt tired.

Trevor:       I think I need to relax.

Laura:        Well, lying by the pool should be          

Vicky:        It was annoying to lose my ticket.

Emma:      You looked really.…………………….. ... when you had to buy another one.

Sarah:        The cabaret was amusing.

Mark:         Claire was certainly         ……………….          .She couldn't stop laughing.

Daniel:      The museum was interesting, wasn't it?

Rachel:      It was OK. I was quite   in those old maps.

Matthew:   I'm fascinated by these old photos.

Emma:       I always find it    ……………………   to see what people looked like as children.

Rachel:      Was it a big thrill meeting Tom Hanks?

Vicky:        You bet. It was just about the most       ………………moment of my life.

I   Sarah:        You look exhausted. You should go to bed.

Mark:        Driving down from Scotland was pretty           

Text:  Market

A market is any one of a variety of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby businesses sell their goods, services and labour to people in exchange for money. Goods and services are sold using a legal tender such as fiat money. This activity forms part of the economy. It is an arrangement that allows buyers and sellers to exchange items. Competition is essential in markets, and separates market from trade. Two persons may trade, but it takes at least three persons to have a market, so that there is competition on at least one of its two sides. Markets vary in size, range, geographic scale, location, types and variety of human communities, as well as the types of goods and services traded. Some examples include local farmers' markets held in town squares or parking lots, shopping centers and shopping malls, international currency and commodity markets, legally created markets such as for pollution permits, and illegal markets such as the market for illicit drugs.

In mainstream economics, the concept of a market is any structure that allows buyers and sellers to exchange any type of goods, services and information. The exchange of goods or services for money is a transaction. Market participants consist of all the buyers and sellers of a good who influence its price. This influence is a major study of economics and has given rise to several theories and models concerning the basic market forces of supply and demand. There are two roles in markets, buyers and sellers. The market facilitates trade and enables the distribution and allocation of resources in a society. Markets allow any tradable item to be evaluated and priced. A market emerges more or less spontaneously or is constructed deliberately by human interaction in order to enable the exchange of rights of services and goods.

Historically, markets originated in physical marketplaces which would often develop into — or from — small communities, towns and cities.

A market can be organized as an auction, as a private electronic market, as a commodity wholesale market, as a shopping center, as a complex institution such as a stock market, and as an informal discussion between two individuals.

Markets of varying types can spontaneously arise whenever a party has interest in a good or service that some other party can provide. Hence there can be a market for cigarettes in correctional facilities, another for chewing gum in a playground, and yet another for contracts for the future delivery of a commodity. There can be black markets, where a good is exchanged illegally and virtual markets, such as eBay, in which buyers and sellers do not physically interact during negotiation. There can also be markets for goods under a command economy despite pressure to repress them.

4. Соотнесите слова и их определения.

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое отличие между interesting  и interested.
2. Приведите пример со  словом  Interested , объясняя особенности перевода на русский язык.
3. Перечислите различия между interesting  and  interested.

Тема 24

Theme: Too and enough

Too short and not long enough both mean the same thing.

   Word order with too and enough

Too goes before an adjective or adverb.

Claire doesn't want to marry Henry. She thinks he's too old. Zedco are in trouble. The company reacted too slowly to the rise in prices. Enough goes after an adjective or adverb.

-The water isn't hot enough. It needs to be boiling, NOT enough hot

-You didn't put the screws in tightly enough, NOT enough tightly

-Too many, too much and enough go before a noun.

-No wonder you're tired. You've been going to too many parties.

Andrew spends too much time working.

There'll be fifteen people for coffee. Have we got enough cups?

Everything is so expensive. Did you bring enough money? We use many with a plural noun and much with an uncountable noun .

Compare these examples with enough.

After an adjective:    The coffee isn't strong enough.

Before a noun:         You didn't put enough coffee in.

We leave out the noun if the meaning is clear without it.

Just add a little water. Not too much.      We'll need fifteen cups. Have we got enough?

C   Other structures with too and enough

We can use a phrase with for after too or enough.

These puzzles are too difficult for children.    This coat isn't warm enough for winter. Have we got enough cups for everyone?

We can also use a to-infinitive.

It's too dangerous to walk home at this time of night.

There are too many museums here to visit in a single day.

Are you fit enough to run a marathon?

I couldn't get close enough to see properly.

Vicky didn't bring enough money to buy two CDs.

1. Look at what people are saying and complete the sentences. Use too, too many, too much or enough with these words: clearly, complicated, difficult, expensive, food, hastily, mistakes, rain, sweet, traffic

            You should have stopped to think first. You acted too hastily.

            This quiz is rather easy. The questions aren't difficult enough.

1          Can I have some more sugar in my coffee, please? It isn't

2          I can't afford a new stereo. It would be  .

3          There's a water shortage. There just hasn't been

4          I can't read your writing. You don't write

5          Try to be more careful, please. You're making

6          The roads are very crowded. There's simply

7          I can't understand these instructions. They're

8          Thousands of people are starving because they can't get

2. Comment on the situations. Use too or enough and a phrase with job or a to-infinitive. A taxi would have been best. But you didn't have the money. I didn't have enough money for a tax . Sarah can't take a day off. She's very busy. Sarah is too busy to take a day off.

1          A picnic would be nice. But it's wet.

2          All your guests will need chairs. But you haven't got very many.

3          You couldn't carry the equipment. You had such a lot.

4          Natasha wants to be a professional musician. You think she's very good.

 Text:  Inflation

In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation also reflects an erosion in the purchasing power of money – a loss of real value in the internal medium of exchange and unit of account in the economy. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index (normally the Consumer Price Index) over time.

Inflation's effects on an economy are various and can be simultaneously positive and negative. Negative effects of inflation include a decrease in the real value of money and other monetary items over time, uncertainty over future inflation may discourage investment and savings, and high inflation may lead to shortages of goods if consumers begin hoarding out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Positive effects include ensuring central banks can adjust nominal interest rates (intended to mitigate recessions), and encouraging investment in non-monetary capital projects.

Economists generally agree that high rates of inflation and hyperinflation are caused by an excessive growth of the money supply. Views on which factors determine low to moderate rates of inflation are more varied. Low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services, or changes in available supplies such as during scarcities, as well as to growth in the money supply. However, the consensus view is that a long sustained period of inflation is caused by money supply growing faster than the rate of economic growth.  

Today, most mainstream economists favor a low steady rate of inflation.  Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation may reduce the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduce the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Generally, these monetary authorities are the central banks that control the size of the money supply through the setting of interest rates, through open market operations, and through the setting of banking reserve requirements.

A connection between inflation and unemployment has been drawn since the emergence of large scale unemployment in the 19th century, and connections continue to be drawn today. In Marxian economics, the unemployed serve as a reserve army of labor, which restrain wage inflation.

3. Соотнесите слова и их определения.

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какой  порядок имеет too and  enough  в английском предложении?
2. Особенности перевода  предложений  с  too  and  enough на русский  язык, приведите примеры.
3. Объясните порядок следования too в английском предложении.

Тема 25

Theme: Adjective + preposition, e.g. proud of

Matthew:        Why are you angry with me, Emma?

Emma: I'm tired of talking to myself. You never listen. I get annoyed at the way you behave.

Matthew:        Sorry, but I have to go now or I'll be late for the basketball game.

Emma: You aren't interested in us, are you? You never worry about our relationship, do you?

Some adjectives can have a preposition after them, e.g. angry with, tired of, late for. The preposition often has a phrase with a noun or pronoun after it.

annoyed at the way you behave     late for the game     angry with me

The preposition can sometimes have an ing-form after it.

tired of talking to myself

B   Feelings

Here are some examples of adjective + preposition which are to do with feelings.

afraid of the dark                               excited about the holiday      proud of our work

amazed at/by the changes                  fed up with waiting               satisfied with the result

ashamed of myself                             fond of my sister                    shocked at/by the violence

bored with doing nothing                  happy about/with the             surprised at/by the reaction

disappointed with/about                    the      arrangements              tired of housework

poor figures                                        keen on sport                          worried about money

eager for action                                  nervous of flying

Compare these examples.

I'm sorry about the mistake.                                      I feel sorry for poor Melanie.

We were angry at/about the delay.                           Sarah was angry with Henry.

We were annoyed at/about the delay.                       Emma was annoyed with Matthew.

I was pleased about winning.                                               The winner was pleased with himself.

Vicky is anxious about her exam.                             People are anxious for news.

C   Good, bad, etc

To talk about a person's ability, we use good at, bad at, etc.

good at tennis            

 brilliant at crosswords  

  bad at games    

hopeless at cooking

To talk about whether something makes you healthy or ill, we use good for and bad for.

Oranges are good for you.    

 Smoking is bad for you.

For behaviour towards another person, we use good to, kind to, nice to, polite to and rude to.

My friends have been good to me.     

You were very rude to the waitress.

D   Other adjectives

Here are some more expressions with other adjectives.

accustomed to the noise                     fit for work                             responsible for running a business

aware of the facts                               full of water                            safe from attack

capable of looking after myself         guilty of murder                     the same as before

different from our usual route           involved in a project               similar to my idea

                                                           prepared for action                 typical of David

famous for her film roles                    ready for the big day              used to the traffic

1. Feelings. Say what these people's feelings are. Use the adjectives in brackets and a preposition.

   The children are leaving on a trip to the zoo. (excited) They're excited about the trip to the zoo.

1          Vicky doesn't like the dark, (afraid)

She's …………………………………………………………………………

2          Nick was watching a video, but he's going to switch it off. (bored)

He's ………………………………………………………………………………

3          Emma is reading about computers, (interested)

She's  

4          Mark has just heard some news that he didn't expect, (surprised)

He's    

5          United have won a victory, (proud)

They're           

6          Olivia's children are being very silly, (annoyed)

She's …………………………………………………………………………

7          The Zedco staff don't think their pay increase is big enough, (not satisfied)

      ……………………………………………………………………………

2 . Good, bad. Complete the conversation. Put in at, for or to.

Sarah:    You were very rude to Henry when you said he needs to lose weight.

Claire:   Well, it's true. Exercise would be good (1)…………         . him. He started jogging and then gave it up.

Sarah:    Yes, but we can't all be good (2)     taking physical exercise.

Claire:   Anyone can do a bit of jogging. You don't have to be brilliant (3)……………   it.And eating so much must be bad (4)          you.

Sarah:    Well, you could have been more polite.

Claire:    Sorry. I'm not very good (5)           saying the right thing.I'll try to be nice (6)               him next time I see him.

3. Complete these paragraphs from a letter Emma has received from her brother. Use these adjectives and put a preposition after each one: aware, different, famous, full, interested, late, ready, responsible, similar, used

Everything was strange here at first because this new job is different from any I've had before. But I'vegot  used to it now, and I'm really enjoying it. I'm mainly (1)……………………………………….   Controlling the costs of the project. The work is quite hard, and I must say I feel (2)………………………………………   a holiday. The company expect people to do overtime. I wasn't (3)            …………………………       that before

I arrived because they hadn't told me at the interview, but I don't mind.

I've got a nice flat, which is very (4)              the one I had in London.

The only difference is that my flat here is (5)                  horrible old furniture.

I keep falling over it! I live right by the harbour. It's a pity I've never been (6) …………………………………………       boats, because this is a good place for sailing. The noise of the motor boats wakes me up every morning, so I'm never

(7) ………………………work.

Text: Marketing and sales

Marketing is the process of identifying, anticipating and then meeting the needs and requirements of consumers in order to make a profit. In contrast, selling involves persuading customers that your products or services provide the benefits that they are looking for.

You can therefore see that there is an important difference between marketing and sales. Marketing puts the needs of the customer first. Through market research, it is possible to find out about customer tastes and requirements.

In contrast selling takes place after marketing has helped the business to identify those sorts of goods that customers are looking for. The sales person is convinced that theirs is the best in the market. It is their job to then convince customers that this is the case.

The marketing department of a firm that produces razors like BIC or Gillette carries out research to find out the sorts of shaving developments that their customers are looking for. They ask customers to tell them what improvements they would like to see to existing products and what new products they would like developing. They test market a range of possible products on customers. As a result of the marketing process they are able to come up with the most suitable products.

Having invested so much in customer focused marketing they must then sell the benefits of the new product developments to customers. This involves advertising and promotion to communicate product benefits. It involves providing the appropriate support literature and direct selling to retail outlets that will stock the new razors. The sales force is effectively selling the benefits of the new products. These benefits were developed as a result of market and product research. Marketing and sales therefore go hand in hand.

Marketing is all about finding out what the customer wants. Selling is all about showing the customer that you can please them by providing them with the products that they want.

Marketing is designed to achieve profitable sales. It involves the use of powerful tools to manipulate the decisions of individuals and of other firms in the private and public sectors. This means that boundaries must be set to define the limits of acceptable behaviour.

Some limitations are imposed on a voluntary basis by firms themselves and by industry-based organisations such as the Advertising Standards Authority. But the law must provide the ultimate source of regulation in areas such as:

consumer protection: laws regulating product safety, honesty in product description and rights to refunds and exchanges;

credit: laws requiring lenders to provide full information about a loan including the Annual Percentage Rate (APR); also giving time for borrowers to change their minds;

information: obligation to disclose information held about consumers;

child protection:  age limits for the sale of alcohol and tobacco products; film certification.

Overall the law has to find a balance between the importance of profitable business enterprise and the need to protect consumers from unfair or anti-social marketing activity.

4. Соотнесите слова и их определения.

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Перечислите  словосочетания с прилагательными.
2. Значение роли  прилагательных  в предложениях  английского  языка.

Тема 26

 Theme: Complex Object

Сложное дополнение — это сочетание существитель­ного или местоимения в объектном падеже (him, us, them) с инфинитивом или причастием I. Су­ществует в трех основных вариантах:

1. С инфинитивом без частицы to или с причастием I после глаголов восприятия:

see       I saw him drive the car. I saw them working in the lab.

hear     I didn’t hear you come into the room. I heard her playing the piano.

watch We watched the plane land. We watched the children playing in the yard.

notice Nobody noticed him go out. He didn’t notice that happen.

I saw him enter the house. — Я видел, как он вошел в дом.

I saw him entering the house. — Я видел, как он входил в дом.

Если используются (вышеперечисленные глаголы с инфинитивом без частицы to), то подчеркивается факт действия, если (эти же глаголы с причастием I) — про­цесс действия.

2. С инфинитивом с частицей to после глаголов

to believe верить, считать I believe her to be a very good teacher.

 to know знать I know him to be a good student.

 to want хотеть I want you to help me.

 to expect ожидать I expect you to come in time.

 to advise советовать I advise you to enter the institute.

 to consider считать English climate is considered to be mild.

to order приказывать He is ordered not to be late.

 to allow разрешать They allow to use dictionaries at the exam.

to find находить I find your story to be very interesting.

 would like хотеть, желать I like you to finish your work.

3. С инфинитивом без частицы to после глаголов
4. to let Don’t let them play in the street.

to make Don’t make me laugh.

1.Раскройте скобки:

1. Не made me (do) it all over again. 2. Her father made her (learn) the lessons. 3. If you want us (make) the work quickly you should let us (start) at once. 4. Would you like me (read) now? 5. They won’t let us (leave) the classroom till our control work has been checked. 6. He wouldn’t let the children (play) in his study. 7. Please let me (know) the results of your exam as soon as possible.8.He made us (wait) for two hours. 9. I let him (go) early as he had done his task. 10. I’d like him (enter) the university but I can’t make him (do) it. 11. I want her (learn) English. 12. I heard the door (open) and saw my friend (come) into the room. 13. I heard her (play) the piano. 14.1 saw him (go out) of the house. 15. The teacher advised us (use) dictionaries. 16. Her father doesn’t allow her (go) to the cinema alone. 17. We expect our basketball team (win) next game. 18. We don’t want you (tell) anything. 19. I saw them (open) the window. 20. That is too difficult for you to do, let me (help) you.

2. Переведите на английский:

1. Вы хотели бы, чтобы работа была сделана сегод­ня? 2. Мы ожидаем, что они хорошо проведут у нас время. 3. Вы ожидаете, что дипломная работа будет сделана скоро? 4. Вы хотите, чтобы мы встретились сегодня? 5. Я хочу, чтобы он закончил эту работу. 6. Мы слышали, что она знает, когда мы сдаем экзамен.

1. Вы хотите, чтобы мы обсудили этот вопрос сегодня?
2. Мы ожидаем, что на этом месте будет построен но­вый дом. 9. Вы хотите, чтобы дети играли здесь?

Complex Subject Субъектный инфинитивный оборот

Субъектный инфинитивный оборот (сложное под­лежащее) состоит из

1. существительного в общем падеже или местоиме­ния в именительном падеже и
2. глагола (обычно в страдательном залоге) + инфинитив.

Оборот переводится на русский язык придаточны­ми предложениями.

Не is known to be a good engineer. Известно, что он хороший инженер.

Не is said to have graduated from the University. Говорят, что он закончил университет.

The experiments were reported to be successful. Сооб­щили, что эксперименты были успешны.

В субъектном инфинитивном обороте могут упот­ребляться глаголы:

to see                             видеть

to hear                            слышать

to say                             сказать

to expect                        ожидать, полагать

to think                          думать, полагать, считать

to report                         сообщать

to suppose                      предполагать

to believe                       полагать

to consider                     считать, полагать

to assume                       допускать

to know.                         знать

которые могут стоять в любом времени в страда­тельном залоге.

Неопределенно-личным предложениям русского языка в английском языке чаще всего соответствуют пассивные обороты, как например:

It is reported that... Сообщается, что ...

It was supposed that... Предполагали, что ... Субъектный инфинитивный оборот употребляется также в сочетании с некоторыми глаголами, которые могут стоять в действительном залоге, а именно с гла­голами:

to prove, to appear, to seem казаться to turn out   оказаться

to happen                                         случаться

This exercise turned out to be very difficult. Оказа­лось, что упражнение очень трудное.

The weather appeared to have improved. Казалось, что погода улучшилась.

3.Переведите следующие предложения:

1. Advertising is considered to be the most important marketing tool.
2. Mobile phone appears to be the most universal means of communication.
3. Tungsten is believed to be the most heat resistant metal.
4. He was seen to come to work early.
5. You are supposed to be able to read English texts without a dictionary.

Text: Problem Solving

Step 1: Define the Problem

Decisions do not occur in a vacuum. Many come about as part of the firm’s planning process. Others are prompted by new opportunities or new problems. It is natural to ask: What brought about the need for the decision? What is the decision all about? In all kinds of textbooks examples, the decision problem is stated and is reasonably well defined. In practice, however, managerial decisions do not come so neatly packaged; rather, they are messy and poorly defined. Thus, problem definition is a prerequisite for problem management.

A key part of problem definition is identifying the setting or context.Identifying the decision context and the decision maker represents a large step toward understanding the choice process. The particular setting has a direct bearing on both the decision maker’s objectives and the available courses of action. The next two steps consider each of these aspects in turn.

Step 2: Determine the Objective

When it comes to economic decisions, it is a truism that «you can’t always get what you want.» But to make any progress at all in your choice, you have to know what you want. In most private sector decisions, the principal objective of the firm - and barometer of its performance — is profit: the difference between the firm’s total revenues and its total costs. Thus, among alternative courses of action, the manager will select the one that will maximize the profit of the firm. Attainment of maximum profit worldwide is the natural objective of the multinational steel company, the drug company, and the management and shareholders of Disney, Canon, Time Inc., Texaco, and Pennzoil. Sometimes the manager focuses on the narrower goal of minimizing cost. For instance, the firm may seek to produce a given level of output at the least cost or to obtain a targeted increase in sales with minimal expenditure on advertising. In a host of settings, measures that reduce costs directly serve to increase profits.

The objective in a public sector decision, whether it be building an airport or regulating a utility, is broader than the private profit standard. In making its choice, the government decision maker should weigh all benefits and costs, not solely those that accrue as revenue or are incurred as expenses. According to this benefit-cost criterion, the airport may be worth building even if it fails to generate a profit for the government authority. The optimal means of regulating the production decisions of the utility depend on a careful comparison of benefits (mainly in the form of energy conservation) and costs (in material and environmental terms).

In practice, profit maximization and benefit-cost analysis are not always unambiguous guides to decision making. One difficulty is posed by the timing of benefits and costs. Should a firm (the drug company, for example) make an investment (sacrifice profits today) for greater profits five or ten years from now? Are the future benefits to air travelers worth the present capital expense of building the airport? Both private and public investments involve trade-offs between present and future benefits and costs. Thus, in pursuing its profit goal, the firm must establish a comparable measure of value between present and future monetary returns.

Uncertainty poses a second difficulty. In many economic decisions, it is customary to treat the outcomes of various actions as certain. For instance, a fast-food chain may know that it can construct a new outlet in 21 days at a cost of $90 per square foot. The cost and timing of construction are not entirely certain, but the margin of error is small enough to have no bearing on the company’s decisions and thus can be safely ignored. In contrast, the cost and date of completion of a nuclear power plant are highly uncertain (due to unanticipated design changes, cost overruns, schedule delays, and the like). At best, the utilities that share ownership of the plant may be able to estimate a range of cost outcome^ and completion dates and assess probabilities for these possible outcomes. (With the benefit of hindsight, one now wishes that the utilities had recognized the risks and safety problems of nuclear plants 10 and 20 years ago, when construction on many plants was initiated.)

The presence of risk and uncertainty has a direct bearing on the way the decision maker thinks about his or her objective. The drug company seeks to maximize its profit, but there is no simple way to apply the profit criterion to determine its best R&D choice. The company cannot use the simple rule «choose the method that will yield the greater profit,» because the ultimate profit from either method cannot be pinned down ahead of time. In each case, there are no profit guarantees; rather, the drug company faces a choice between two risky options. Similarly, public programs and regulatory policies will generate future benefits and costs that cannot be predicted with certainty.

What is the decision maker’s goal? What end is he or she pursuing? How should the decision maker value outcomes with respect to this goal? What if he or she is pursuing multiple, conflicting objectives?

Glossary

to prompt — подсказывать, приглашать

to state — констатировать

reasonably - разумно, приемлемо

neatly packaged — аккуратно упакованный

 messy — неряшливый

prerequisite — предпосылка, необходимое условие

 particular setting — конкретная постановка

in turn — в свою очередь

 truism — банальность

hindsight — оценка прошедших событий

attainment — достижение

 shareholder - акционер,

 пайщик target - цель, мишень

 to weigh — весить

solely — только

benefit-cost criterion — критерий издержек и прибылей

means — средства

unambiguous — недвусмысленный

trade-off — компромисс

customary — обычный, традиционный

 yield — прибыль

 to be pinned down — быть просчитанным, определенным

to predict — предсказывать

Контрольные вопросы:

1.  Какое действие выражает  complex object?
2. Объясните способы образования  complex object.
3. Особенности  перевода   complex  object   на русский  язык.

Тема 27

Theme: Phrasal verbs (1)

A phrasal verb is a verb + adverb, e.g. come in, sit down, take off. There are very many phrasal verbs in English. Here are some adverbs which are used in phrasal verbs: about, along, around, away, back, behind, by, down, forward, in, off, on, out, over, round, through, up

Some of these words can also be prepositions.

Some phrasal verbs are easy to understand.

Tom asked Melanie to come in.   

  The man in front turned round and stared at me.

 The meanings are clear if you know the words come, in, turn and round.

But many phrasal verbs are idiomatic. The verb + adverb has a special meaning. Fortunately the plan came off. (= succeeded) Why did you turn down such a good offer? (= refuse) I can't make out if it's a man or a woman over there. (= see clearly)

Sometimes a phrasal verb has the same meaning as a one-word verb.

find out — discover        leave out — omit              send out — distribute

go back = return         make up = invent (a story)                  throw away = discard

go on = continue        put off— postpone                 turn up — arrive

The phrasal verb is usually more informal than the one-word verb.

  Word order with phrasal verbs

When a phrasal verb has an object, the object can go either before or after the adverb.

Verb        Object         Adverb                       Verb        Adverb        Object

Melanie              took      her coat                   off.     OR   Melanie   took      off               her coat.

I                      wrote    the number     down.    OR    I                     wrote   down             the number.

Who                  let         the cat          out?                 OR    Who        let         out              the cat?

A long object goes after the adverb.

The gang have carried out a number of bank raids in the last few months. Why don't you try on that dress in the window?

A pronoun (e.g. it, them) always goes before the adverb. Melanie felt hot in her coat, so she took it off. NOT She too off it.

There have been a number of raids. The police know who carried them out. NOT The police know who caried out them.

1. Understanding phrasal verbs .Work out the meaning of these phrasal verbs and put them in the right sentences: come back, come in, cut out, fall over, get on, give away, go away, let in, lie down, pay back, stay in, take back

            Hello. Nice to see you. Come in and sit down.

            I didn't have a key, but luckily someone was there to let me in.

1          Can't we go out somewhere? I don't want to                           all evening.

2          Could you lend me ten pounds? I'll              you                     on Friday.

3          The pavement is very icy. Be careful you don't

4          I was feeling so tired I had to               on the bed for a while.

5          There was an article in the newspaper that I wanted to …………………….         and keep.

6          Mark's gone out, and I don't know when he's going to       

7          The driver unlocked the coach so that the passengers were able to

8          I'll have to_________               these books .…………       to the library.

9          Your brother was being a nuisance, so I told him to__________   

10        In order to get publicity, the company decided to ……………………... some of the new sweets free to children.

2. One-word verb and phrasal verb .Put in a phrasal verb that means the same as the verb in brackets. Use the correct form of the phrasal verb.

Rachel:    I've  found out (discovered) what the problem is with the exam.

Vicky:     Oh, good. Tell me.

Rachel:    When they printed the papers, they (1) ………………………   (omitted) a page. No one noticed

until the papers had all been (2)         ………………..         (distributed).Now they'll have to (3)   (discard) all the papers and (4) ……………………….          (postpone) the exam.

Vicky:     Are you sure you haven't (5)         (invented) this whole story?

Rachel:    It's true, I tell you. And isn't it good news?

Vicky:     I don't know about that. It means we'll have to (6)…………………………(continue) revision

3. Complete the sentences by putting in the phrasal verbs. Some of the spaces you have to leave empty. Sometimes more than one answer is correct.

The sweater was full of holes, so I threw it away (threw away).

I've put up (put up) that picture we bought last week.

1          There's always litter here. No one ever          it          .(pickup).

2          It's quite cold now. I think I'll           my coat……………   (put on).

3          I haven't heard from Rita lately. I might             her             ..    (ring up).

4          Daniel has to go into college to              his project     (hand in).

5          I can't remember the address. I wish I'd           it …………..          (write down).

6          Nick is trying to               all the money he's just lost …………      (win back).

7          I'm not going to have time to these dishes ..…………..       (wash up).

8          If you don't know the number, you can …………………. It…………….   (look up) in the phone book.

9          There was an accident which ………….       ... all the traffic coming into town………… (held up).

10        The words 'expect' and 'except' are so similar that I keep………………..  them ………….         (mix up)

 Text: What Are Taxes?

People often say there are only two things a person can be safe of in life: death and taxes. What are taxes? Taxes are defined as financial burdens borne by individuals and legal entities according to their ability to contribute towards the expenditures of public authority without a specific compensation. Taxes are compulsory levies that are regularly imposed and, as a rule, not destined for a special purpose; they are regarded as a contribution to the State Budget from which most government expenditures are financed in the common interest of the society. Taxes differ from other mandatory levies in that they are unrequited – i.e., they are not paid in exchange for some specific services or any particular benefit but represent a general obligation of taxpayers. In other words, there is no relationship between the tax paid by the person and the benefits received as a result of public expenditure. In modern economies taxes are the most important source of  government  revenue. Taxes are considered  to have three functions:

1. fiscal or budgetary, to cover government expenditures, to provide the public authorities with the revenue required for meeting the cost of defence, social services, interest payments on the national debt, municipal services, etc.;
2. economic, to give effect to economic policy, to promote such general aims as full employment, monetary stability, to influence the stable satisfactory rate of economic growth of the nation, and also to influence the macroeconomic performance of the economy ( the government’s strategy for doing this is called its fiscal policy. To achieve this aim tax exemptions are used.);

social or redistribute, to increase the welfare of the community, to lessen

inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth by redistributing resources between individuals or classes of the population. Historically, the nobility were supported by taxes on the poor. Modern social security systems are intended to support the poor, the disabled or the retired by taxes on those who are still working.

Taxes are compulsory involuntary payments and every citizen of the country is legally bound to the tax imposed on him. Failure to pay taxes, or paying less than one  owes, can lead to substantial penalties (besides just the tax owed). If the failure to pay or the payment of incorrectly low amount is deemed intentional, not merely a mistake, it is a crime subject to more sever penalties, including large fines and imprisonment.  

Glossary

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Приведите  примеры на phrasal   verbs?
2. Порядок употребления  Phrasal verbs   в предложениях  английского языка.
3. Значение роли phrasal verbs  в предложениях  русского языка.

Тема 28

Theme:  Phrasal verbs (2)

 Everyday situations

Here are some phrasal verbs in everyday situations.

Come on, we're going now.

 Trevor dug up an old coin in the garden.

 You have to fill in your name and address.

How did you get on in the test? I usually get up late on Sundays.

 I'm going out for the evening.

Melanie poured tea for the guests and handed the cakes round.

Hurry up. We haven't got much time.

David hit his head on a lamppost and knocked himself out.

Mark picked up the cassette and put it in the player.

You have to plug the machine in first.

 I'm going to throw these old clothes away.

We were too tired to wash up after the meal. Sarah woke up suddenly in the night.

   Phrasal verbs and one-word verbs

Here are some phrasal verbs with the same meaning as a one-word verb . They're going to bring in a new law against drinking and driving. (= introduce) How did the argument come about? (= happen) Emma isn't speaking to Matthew. They've fallen out. (= quarrelled) We've fixed up a meeting for next Tuesday. (= arranged) Trevor gave up playing football years ago. (= stopped) / had a pain in my arm, but it's gone away. (= disappeared) We heard the bomb go off jive miles away. (= explode) The traffic was held up by road works. (= delayed)

The United Nations was set up to settle conflicts peacefully. (= established) I'm trying to work out how much money I've spent. (= calculate)

   Business situations

Here are some examples of phrasal verbs in business situations.                                  

If we're spending too much money, we'll have to cut back. (= spend less)

Our lawyers will draw up a new contract. (= write)

We mustn't fall behind in the race to develop new products. (= be slower than others)

The two sides were close to an agreement, but it fell through. (= didn't happen)

The company fought off a takeover by ICM Computers. (= managed to stop)

tried to ring Santiago, but I couldn't get through. (= make contact)

The company has laid off two hundred workers because of a lack of new orders.

The computer will print out the details.

The consultants put forward a proposal to reorganize the company. (= suggested)

I'll get the information for you. Can I ring you back in half an hour? (= phone again)

Sarah paid a visit to the client to try to sort out the difficulties. (= put right)

The company boss has stepped down after ten years in charge. (= left the job)

We are taking on the challenge of expanding overseas. (= accepting)

Large companies sometimes take over smaller ones. (= take control of)

1 .Phrasal verbs and one-word verbs Rewrite the sentences replacing each underlined verb with a phrasal verb.

We're trying to arrange a holiday together.

We're trying to fix up a holiday together. Nick says he's stopped smoking.

1          How did the accident happen?

2          I think Matthew and Emma have quarrelled.

i   The problem isn't going to just disappear.

4          The government is introducing a new tax on computers.

5          Zedco want to establish a new sales office in Germany.

2 .Business situations  Complete the news article about Zedco. Put in these words: fallen behind, fell through, fight off, laying off, put forward, sort out, step down, taking over, taken on

Zedco Chief Executive Barry Douglas has  put forward a new plan designed to

(1) ………………………………………………     the company's problems. It is only twelve months since Zedco tried to strengthen its position by (2)            Alpha Plastics. But the deal (3) ………………………………       , and Alpha managed to (4)            ………………….      Zedco's attempts to  take control. Since then Zedco has performed poorly and has (5) ………………………………in the race for market share. Managing Director James Ironside has had to(6)………………………………           , and BarryDouglas has (7) ………………………… the task of rescuing the company. There are fears that the new plan will mean (8)            staff in order to reduce expenditure.

 Text: Income Tax

Taxes are most commonly classified as either direct or indirect, an example of the former type being the income tax (inheritance tax, real estate tax) and of the latter the sales tax (value-added tax, excise tax). Direct taxes are taxes on persons; they are aimed at the individual’s ability to pay as measured by his income or net income in excess of stipulated minimum. They are also adjusted to take into account the circumstances influencing the ability to pay of the individual, such as family status, number and age of children, and financial burdens resulting from illness. Income taxes are often levied at graduated rates; that is, at rates that rise as income rises. Inheritance taxes are taxes on the money or property that you give to someone else after you die. Real estate taxes are taxes imposed upon immovable property consisting of land, any natural resources, and buildings.

In Russia income tax is levied on resident and non-resident individuals, whether or not they are citizens of the Russian Federation. Individuals are considered to be a resident if they stay in Russia for 183 days or more in the calendar year.

Residents are liable to income tax on their world-wide income. Non-residents are taxed on their Russian Federation source of income.

Income is taxable whether it is received in pecuniary form or in kind. Taxable

income includes:

• income from employment;
• casual earnings and earnings from secondary employment;
• copyright and patent royalties;
• income from self-employment.

Taxable income does not include: social insurance and social welfare benefits; alimony ; all types of pensions; payments to students; income received for work associated with prospecting activity for the extraction of gold; interest and gains from deposits in Russia banking establishments and from state treasure bonds; compensation for injury and other damage to health; capital gains; gifts; insurance payments; redundancy payment.

Each individuals is established to deduction equal to the minimum wage. An additional deduction is available for the cost of maintaining each child up to age 18, each child aged from 18 to 24 receiving daytime undergraduate education and each dependent not having an independent source of income.

Second World War veterans and invalids, parents and widows of  military personnel who died carrying out military and official duties are entitled to a deduction equal.

Taxable income may also be reduced by amounts given for charitable purposes.

 Glossary

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Приведите  примеры на phrasal   verbs?
2. Порядок употребления  Phrasal verbs   в предложениях  английского языка.
3. Значение роли phrasal verbs  в предложениях  русского языка.

Тема 29

Theme:  Phrasal verbs (3).

 Adverb meanings

down = becoming less                                               on = continuing

turn down the music                                      carry on working

bring down the cost oj living                         drive on a bit further

down = completely to the ground                 hang on/hold on a minute

knock a house down                                      out = away, disappearing

cut down a tree                                                         wash out the dirt

down = stopping completely                         cross out a mistake

the car broke down                                        blow out the candle

a factory closing down                                              out = to different people

down = on paper                                                       hand out free tickets

copy down the words                                               share out the winnings

write down the message                                            out = aloud

note down the details                                    read out the article

off = away, departing                                               call out anxiously

set off on a journey                                       out = from start to finish

jump in the car and drive off                         write out the whole list

see Emma off at the station                           work out the answer

the plane took off       over =                         from start to finish

the pain is wearing off                                              check your work over

off = disconnected                                                    think the problem over

switch off the heater                                     up = increasing

cut off our electricity                                     prices are going up

the caller rang off                                                      put up taxes

on = connected                                                          speak up so we can hear

switch on the kettle                                       up = completely

turn on the TV                                                           eat up these chocolates

leave the lights on all night                            fill up with petrol

on = wearing                                                  count up the money

put a coat on                                                  tear up the paper

1. Adverb meanings. Look back at B and then write the meaning of the underlined words in these sentences.

            I must get these ideas down in writing.          on paper

1          Daniel finished all the cake ug.

2          I'm writing in pencil so I can rub out my mistakes.

3          Vicky didn't answer. She just went on reading.

4          I'll just read over what I've written.

5          A woman in the audience shouted something out

6          The water was turned off for about an hour today.

7          Nick's aggressive manner frightens people off.

8          The company wants to keep its costs down.

9          The embassy was burnt down by terrorists.

10        Someone will have to type all these figures out.

11        Social workers were giving out soup to the hungry.

12        Luckily Zedco's sales figures are moving up again.

13        The man was tall and dark. He had a blue jacket on.

14        Business is so bad that many firms have shut down.

2.  Adverb meaning. Put in the correct adverb.

Melanie:     Everything is so expensive. Prices seem to be going up all the time.

David:        Yes, and the government is supposed to be bringing inflation down.

Laura:  You shouldn't leave the television...  all night.

Trevor:            Sorry, I forgot. I usually turn it        

Vicky: I've written the wrong word here.

Rachel:            Well, rub it

Vicky: I can't. It's in biro. I'll have to write the whole thing ……………. again.

  Sarah:            They're going to pull ……………     this beautiful old building.

Mark:  I know. Some protesters were handing …………….          leaflets about it.

 Emma:           Hold……………       a minute. I thought I heard someone call

Matthew:        I think you must have imagined it.

 Text: Small Business

            Many people find the potential independence and financial rewards that can come from owning a small business very appealing. For some, owning their own business has been a lifelong dream. Many people, however, hesitate to pursue this dream because they don’t think they have enough education, experience or money – or are simply afraid they might fail. Others can’t accept the idea that they can change their lives – that people like them could ever own their own business. For still others, going into business for themselves is a financial necessity because they have lost their job and there are no other readily available ways to earn a living, or even survive.

Whatever the reason, owning your own business can be one of the most challenging, satisfying, demanding and rewarding things you do in your life. However, there are real risks and difficulties in starting any new business.

            Small business owners are also called entrepreneurs. One definition of an entrepreneur is someone who organizes, manages and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise. Other experts say an entrepreneur is a person who can “create out of nothing” a viable business.

            There are a number of myths and misconceptions about what it takes to be an entrepreneur. One misconception is the people who go into business for themselves are naturally high risk-takers. Of course, there are risks in business, but real entrepreneurs aren’t gamblers who depend solely on chance to succeed.

            In fact, just the opposite is true: successful entrepreneurs do everything possible to minimize the real risks associated with starting a company by studying, planning and organizing the information, people and materials they will need to succeed. They manage risk by setting reasonable and obtainable goals – then work to achieve them. In short, the successful small business owner works hard and intelligently.

            Despite what many think, starting a successful small business does not always require a lot of formal education or prior management experience. Certain basic skills will be needed, plus some background in the business being contemplated. Just as important as formal education is the willingness to learn and improve the skills needed to succeed in business.

            One of the biggest misconceptions about entrepreneurs is that they are only interested in making money. Entrepreneurs certainly like and respect money, but money is only a byproduct of an even bigger goal for many very successful entrepreneurs.

            As one U.S. expert on entrepreneurial management observed:

            Many businesses fail because their owners were only interested in money. Most really successful companies are founded by someone with an idea and a dream. Whatever money and wealth they accumulated is the result of them being willing to work night and day to make this dream a reality. If you want to be really successful, know what your dreams are before going into business.

            There are also a number of common traits successful entrepreneurs share:

• a great deal of energy;
• ability to establish priorities and make decisions;
• ability to deal effectively with a wide variety of people, such as customers, employees, suppliers, possible investors and lenders;
• ability to communicate clearly and effectively;
• ability to work with numbers;
• familiarity with customers and with the products or services to be sold;
• ability to balance conflicts between business and personal goals;
• awareness of personal strengths and weaknesses.

            Becoming an entrepreneur is a way of looking at the world, seeing opportunity where others see problems. It is also knowing how to use certain basic tools to achieve your goals.

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Приведите  примеры на phrasal   verbs?
2. Порядок употребления  Phrasal verbs   в предложениях  английского языка.
3. Значение роли phrasal verbs  в предложениях  русского языка.

Тема 30

 Theme: Видовременные формы английского глагола в действительном залоге

Text: Ordering the devices

After Ivan Smirnov had a fact-finding visit to Newall Ltd. he studied the materials he got and reported the results of his visit and survey to the General Director. In the morning he tele­phoned Mr. Freiser and made an appointment for 11 a. m. the same day. Thus they met at Mr. Freiser's premises at 11 and after some preliminaries they got down to business.

Frank: Judging by your early call this morning you have brought us good news, havent'you?

Ivan : That's true. Last night I spoke with my General Director and he gave me the go-ahead to the purchase. And here is the list of the devices we are interested in.

Frank: And how many devices of each type are you ordering?

Ivan : 5 of each the five types, or 25 all in all.

Frank: It is rather disappointing, I should say.

Ivan : I agree with you here. It's a rather small order. But it's a trial order. If our customers are satisfied with the devices they will order some more. Meanwhile we'll contact our customers in a few other cities in Russia. They might be interested too.

Frank: And speaking about your trial order, when do you need the devices?

Ivan: Can you deliver them next month?

Frank: At the earliest we can deliver them during the second half of the month. And how do you want us to ship the goods?

Ivan: By air, this time. They are not very heavy and besides our customers are impatient to test them as soon as possible.

Frank: If I understand you properly you would like us to ship them on cif terms by plane. The cif prices will be much higher than the basic prices stated in our bro­chures.

Ivan: Then let's discuss the price now.

Frank: Shall we have some coffee or tea first?

Ivan: I don't mind a break at all.

Glossary

Контрольные вопросы:

1. Перечислите различие между Simple Tenses  and  Continuous ?
2. Значение роли  предлогов английского языка?
3. Перечислите список глаголов, которые не употребляются во  временах группы Continuous.

Glossary

microeconomics – микроэкономика

macroeconomics – макроэкономика

household – домашнее хозяйство

management – менеджмент

commerce – торговля, коммерция

trade – торговля

consumption – потребление, затраты, издержки

goods and services – товары и услуги

necessities and luxuries – товары первой необходимости и предметы роскоши

supply and demand – предложение и спрос

aggregate supply – совокупное предложение

commodity – товар для продажи

resource allocation – распределение ресурсов

production and distribution – производство и распределение

mergers and acquisitions – слияние и поглощение

scarcity – дефицит, недостаток

employment-inflation trade-off – взаимовлияние уровня занятости и темпов инфляции

social setting – социальные условия

gross national product – валовой национальный продукт

gross domestic product – валовый внутренний продукт

federal funds/state budget/government balance/public finance – государственный бюджет

legal entity – юридическое лицо

natural person – физическое лицо

comparative advantage – сравнительное преимущество

benefit – преимущество, польза

Market economy – рыночная экономика

local/national/domestic market – внутренний рынок

major  – основной рынок

raw material ~ – рынок сырья

free  – свободный рынок

 share – доля на рынке

rate – биржевой курс

sales oppotunities – конъюнктура рынка

failure – несостоятельность рынка

perfect competition – совершенная (чистая) конкуренция

imperfect competition – несовершенная конкуренция

monopoly – монополия

monopsody – монопсодия (монополия покупателя)

insider trading – инсайдерские торговые операции с ценными бумагами

price floor – минимальная цена

ceiling – максимальная цена

 skimming – завышение цен

input  – цена ресурсов, цена основных средств производства

equilibrium  – равновесная цена

purchase  – цена на потребительские товары

premium pricing – стратегия высоких цен

penetration  - политика цен при входе на рынок

shadow  – скрытое (теневое) ценообразование

economy  – установка минимальных цен на товары

movement of capital – обращение капитала

accumulation of  – накопление капитала

circulating/floating/trading ~ – оборотный капитал

assets – основные средства

goods – средства производства

flow – движение капитала

investment – капиталовложения

sales strategy – стратегия сбыта

representative – торговый представитель

wholesale distributor (wholesaler) – оптовый продавец

retail  (retailer) – розничный продавец

natural rate of unemployment – естественный уровень безработицы

core business – основная продукция

non-profit organization – некоммерческая организация

small businesses – малый бизнес

client/customer – покупатель

agent – агент, посредник

entrepreneur - предприниматель, хозяин мелкого бизнеса

costs and expenses – расходы и затраты

output – выпуск, продукция

product differentiation – расширение ассортимента продукции

capacity – производственная мощность

markup – наценка

private property – частная собственность

intellectual property – интеллектуальная собственность

personal possessions – личная собственность

average risk – средний уровень риска

advertising – реклама

 Banking – банковские операции

bank deposit – банковский вклад

transfer/remittance – банковский перевод

credit history – досье заемщика

bill of credit – аккредитив

exchange rates – валютные курсы

interest  – процент кредитования

settlement account  – расчетный счет

personal ~– лицевой счет

Taxes – налоги

sales tax – налог с продаж

excise – акцизный сбор

income  – подоходный налог

income act – закон о подоходном налоге

progressive – прогрессивный налог

corporation (income)  – корпоративный налог на прибыль

Valu Added ~ (VAT) – налог на добавленную стоимость

unified  on imputed income – единый доход на вмененный доход

code – налоговый кодекс

statement – налоговая декларация

tax-deductible – исключаемый из налогообложения

fraud – налоговое мошенничество

 evader (evador) – лицо, уклоняющееся от уплаты налогов

Accountancy (accounting) – бухгалтерское дело

financial accounting – финансовый учет

records – бухгалтерская документация

system – бухгалтерская система

financial statement – финансовый отчет

of financial performance – отчет о финансовых результатах

profit and loss ~ – отчет о прибылях и убытках

income  – декларация о доходам

balance – баланс

sheet – бухгалтерский баланс

 of trade – торговый баланс

of payment – платежный баланс

trial  – оборотно-сальдовая ведомость

general ledger – главная бухгалтерская книга, общий гроссбух

collection of payment – инкассо

payment by installments – оплата в рассрочку

income/profit/revenue – доход, прибыль, выручка

 Основная литература

1.Воронцова И.И., Ильина А.К., Момджи Ю.В.

Английский язык для студентов экономических факультетов. Москва: ПРИОР, 1999

2.В. Л. Каушанская, Р. Л. Ковнер, О. Н. Кожевникова, Е. В. Прокофьева, 3. М. Райнес, С. Е. Сквирская, Ф. Я. Цырлина

A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.English for International Tourism. Course Book. Mariam Jacob and Peter Strutt. Longman.

4.Workplace English. Travel File. Student’s Book. Mark Helgesen. Keith Adamas. Longman.

5.Воробьева С.А. Деловой английский язык для сферы туризма.

6.Advanced Skills. Resource book. Haines S. CUP, 2006. Reading Extra. Resource book. Driscoll L. CUP, 2004. Fast Track to FCE. Course book. Stanton A., Stephens M. Longman, 2001

7.English for academic study: Reading and Writing. Source Book. - Slaght J., Harben P., Pallant A. University of Reading 2006

8.English Vocabulary in Use Me. Cartney M., O'Dell F.. Cambridge University Press, 1999

9.English Vocabulary in Use. Stuart Redman. CUP, 1997

10.Enterprise.1, 2, 3, 4 Course book/ Work book . Evans & J. Dooley.

11.Inside out. Advanced.  Jones C, Bastow T. Student's book. Macmillan2001

12.Language In Use. Class book / Workbook . Doff A., Jones C. CUP. 1991

13.New Headway International. Student’s book/ Workbook (Intermediate-Upper intermediate). Liz and John Soars.

 Дополнительная литература

1. Business Across Cultures. Intermediate.
2. In company. Pre-lntermediate. - Clarke S. Kerr P. Straightforward. Macmillan Publishers Limited 2005,
3. Lifelines. Elementary: Student's Book.Hutchinson T. Oxford. 2001.
4. Listening Extra. Resource book. - Miles Craven. Cambridge University Press 2004
5. Look ahead. Classroom course. Hopkins A., Potter J.    Pre- intermediate. Longman.
6. Matrix. Intermediate student's book.
7. Matters. Elementary. Student's book. / Work book. Bell J., Gower R. Longman, 2000
8. Mission 2. Course book. Virginia Evans, Jenny Dooley. Express Publishing 1996
9. New English File.  Oxenden,. OUP
10. New First Certificate. Masterclass.
11. Prospects. Intermediate. Student's book.